Exam One Flashcards
anatomy
the study of structure
physiology
the study of function of the body
gross anatomyq
structure and relationship of large body parts that are visible to the unaided eye
regional
refers to all structures in a specific region
ex: biceps femoris, femoral artery, femoral vein
systematic
refers to the study of organ systems
surface
refers to the superficial anatomical markings
ex: brachial, abdominal, pectoral, crural
microscopic anatomy
study of structures that cant be seen without magnification
cytology
study of cells
histology
study of tissues
relationship of microscopic anatomy to gross anatomy
cells make tissues, tissues make organs
levels of organization
atom, cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, organism
list all the organ systems
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive
anatomic position
standing upright, feet parallel, head level and forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward
coronal or frontal
divides body or structure into anterior and posterior parts
transverse or cross
sectional or horizontal - cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the body or organ
midsagittal or median
divides the body or structure into equal right and left halves
sagittal
divides the bod or structure into unequal right and left halves
anatomic directions
describe structures relative to one another
anterior/posterior
front/back
ventral/dorsal
front/back
superior/inferior
upper/lower
cranial/caudal
closer to head/ closer to tail
medial/lateral
closer to midline/ farther from midline
ipsilateral/ contralateral
same side/ opposite side
proximal/distal
closest to attachment/ furthest from attachment
two main body regions
axial and appendicular
axial region
head, neck, and trunk
appendicular region
upper limbs and lower limbs
cranial cavity
brain enclosed in the cranium
vertebral cavity
spinal cord enclosed in the vertebral column
ventral cavity consists of
thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity
thoracic cavity is
superior to diaphragm
what are ventral cavities lined by
serous membrane
parietal
lines internal surface of body wall
visceral
covers the external surface of organs
where is the serous cavity
between parietal and visceral layers
what is serous fluid
lubricant to reduce friction between moving organs
pericardium
serous membrane around the heart
pleura
serous membrane around lungs
four primary tissues
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
cellular
bound close together
polar
apical, basal and lateral surface
apical surface exposed to surface/lumen
attached
basal cell layer is attached to a basement membrane
avascular
no blood cells
innervated
we can sense things
nervous supply within tissue
high generation capacity
cells can replace themselves when damaged
function of epithelial tissue
covers surface - protection from abrasion and dehydration
lines inside of organs and body cavities - controls permeability
three structures found on the apical surface of cells
microvilli, cilia, stereocilia
microvilli
found in intestines, increases surface area for absorption
cilia
found in the respiratory tract, moves substances over apical surface
stereocilia
rare, long cilia, functions as microvilli
what are the three different cell shapes
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
simple squamous epithelium
structure: simple squamous cell
function: rapid diffusion, filtration, secretion in serous membranes
location: alveoli of lungs, endothelium ( heart chambers, and lumen of vessels) and mesothelium (serous membrane)
simple squamous cells
flat, scale-like, single layer
simple cuboidal epithelium
structure: simple cuboidal cells, lumen, basement membrane
function: absorption and secretion
location: kidney tubules
simple cuboidal epithelium
square shaped cells
simple columnar epithelium
structure: simple columnar cell, lumen, basement membrane, goblet cell
function: absorption and secretion: secretion of mucin (goblet cells)
location: lining of the digestive tract
pseudostratified columnar epithelium ciliated
structure: pseudostratified cell, basement membrane, cilia
function: protection, secretion of mucin, and movement by cilia
location: respiratory tract
non keratinized
living cells
stratified squamous epithelium: non keratinized
structure: stratified squamous cells, basement membrane, lumen
function: protection of underlying tissue
location: vagina, oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus and anus
keratinized
non living cells
stratified squamous epithelium: keratinized
structure: stratified squamous cells, keratinization
function: protection of underlying tissue
location: epidermis of skin
stratified cuboidal epithelium
structure: stratified cuboidal cell, basement membrane, lumen
function: protection and secretion
location: large ducts of exocrine glands and parts of male urethra
stratified columnar epithelium
structure: stratified columnar cell, basement membrane, lumen
function: protection and secretion
location: very rare, male urethra and large ducts of exocrine glands
transitional epithelium
structure: transitional epithelial cell (domed apical surface), basement membrane, lumen
function: distension and recoil
location: urinary bladder, ureters and parts of urethra
ground substance
a mixture of proteins and carbohydrates with variable amounts of salts and water
protein fibers + ground substance =
extracellular matrix ( everything outside the cell)
what are the different types of protein fibers
collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers
function of connective tissue
protect, bind structures together, supports and structural framework
mesenchyme
function: common origin for all other connective tissue types
location: embryo, fetus and adult
areolar connective tissue
structure: fibroblasts, elastic fibers, collagen fibers, ground substance
function: packs around and binds organs
location: surrounding nerves, vessels, and subcutaneous layer
adipose connective tissue
structure: adipocytes
function: protects, stores fats, insulates
location: subcutaneous layer, surrounding select organs
reticular connective tissue
structure: reticular fibers, ground substance]
function: stroma of lymphatic organs
location: spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
dense regular connective tissue
structure: collagen fibers, fibroblast nuclei, ground substance
function: unidirectional strength and flexibility
location: tendons and ligaments
dense irregular connective tissue
structure: collagen fibers, fibroblast nuclei, ground substance
function: tensile strength in all directions
location: dermis of the skin, capsules of organs
elastic connective tissue
structure: elastic fibers, ground substance
function: provides a framework and supports organs
location: walls of large arteries
hyaline cartilage
structure: chondrocyte in lacuna, extracellular matrix
function: smooth surfaces for movement at joints, a model for bone growth, supports soft tissue
location: ends of long bones, fetal skeleton, costal cartilage, most of the larynx, trachea, and nose
fibrocartilage
structure: chondrocyte in lacuna; collagen fibers
function: resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints
location: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee joint
elastic cartilage
structure: chondrocyte in lacuna; elastic fibers
function: structure and shape with extensive flexibility
location: external ear, epiglottis
osseous connective tissue
structure: osteon, osteocyte in lacuna, concentric lamellae, central canal, perforating canal
function: supports soft structure, protects organs, lever for movement, stores calcium and phosphorus; spongy: site of hemopoiesis
location: bones of the body
blood connective tissue
structure: erythrocyte, leukocyte, thrombocyte, plasma
function: erythrocytes: carry oxygen and carbon dioxide; leukocytes: immune response; thrombocytes: clotting
location: within blood vessels
what is muscle compromised of
cells called fibers
contractile
when cells are active, internal changes cause them to shorten
voluntary
we control movement
striated
perpendicular banding pattern
skeletal muscle tissue
structure: voluntary, striated, multinucleated, cylindrical shape
function: moves skeleton, voluntary movement, locomotion, heat production
location: attaches to bone or skin, voluntary sphincters: lips, urethra, anus
cardiac muscle tissue
structure: involuntary, striated, intercalated discs, one or two nuclei per cell
function: to pump blood in the heart
location: heart wall (myocardium)
smooth muscle tissue
structure: involuntary, non striated, spindle-shaped cells
function: involuntary movements and motion, moves materials through internal organs
location: walls of hollow organs ( vessels, airways, stomach, bladder, uterus)
neurons characteristics
excitable - specialized to conduct electrical signals through the body
extreme longevity
nonmitotic
consists of cell body, axons, and dendrites
control activities
glial cells characteristics
non- excitable
mitotic (find cancer here)
6 types
neurons characteristics
control activities
process information
glial cell characteristics
support and protect neurons
nervous tissue
structure: neuron, cell body, nuclei of neuroglial cells
function: neurons: control; information processing, storage and retrieval; internal communication; glial cells: support and protect neurons
location: brain, spinal cord, and nerves
what tissue is…
- composed of cells bound closely together with the apical surface of the cells exposed to the lumen and basal surface of the cells bound to the basement membrane
- has excitable cells composed of a cell body, axon, and dendrites
- is comprised of cells called fibers which are contractile and cause shortening
- all types of within the category are composed of cells, protein fibers and ground substance
epithelial tissue
which of the following is true of cilia and microvilli
- project from the apical surface of cells
- increase surface area for absorption
- move substances across the apical surface of cells
- are found in connective tissue
what is the difference in function between simple epithelia and stratified epithelia
simple epithelial tissue has only one cell layer. In contrast, stratified epithelial tissue has two or more cell layers piled upon each other
what is basement membrane
a dense, sheet-like form of extracellular matrix (ECM) that underlie epithelia and endothelia, and surround muscle, fat and Schwann cells
what is a lumen
a term that describes the cavity within the tubular structure. It usually refers to the space inside digestive, respiratory, and urogenital organs or vessels of the body
why is pseudostratified columnar epithelium considered a simple epithelia type
pseudostratified columnar epithelia are tissues formed by a single layer of cells that give the appearance of being made from multiple layers
integument
the skin that covers your body
integumentary system
the skin and it derivatives ( nails, hair, sweat glands, sebaceous gland)
what are the three layers of skin
epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous layer/ hypodermis
epidermis
superficial , stratified squamous epithelium
dermis
deep, dense irregular and areolar connective tissue
subcutaneous layer / hypodermis
not part of the integument - closely involved with structure and function of skin
areolar and adipose connective tissue
function of the dermis and epidermis
protection, prevention of water loss and gain, temperature regulation, metabolic regulation, immune defense, sensory receptors, secretion
epidermis
stratified squamous epithelium keratinized, avascular, composed of many layers
5 strata of the epidermis (deep to superficial)
stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum
stratum basale
single layer of cuboidal/ low columnar cells
cell types in stratum basale
keratinocytes - produce tough keratin for water resistance
melanocytes - produce melanin to absorb UV light and prevent DNA damage
tactile cells - sense touch
stratum spinosum
several layers of kerainocytes
cell types in stratum spinosum
epidermal dendritic cells - immune cells that act as phagocytes to fight infection and initiate immune responsed
stratum granulosum
3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes undergoing keratinization
the types of keratin granules in cells of the stratum granulosum
keratohyalin granules - involved in the keratinization process ‘
lamellar granules - release contents (primarily lipids) into extracellular space; help form water barrier
stratum lucidum
thin, translucent region, two to three cell layers thick
present only in thick skin
stratum corneum
thickness varies from 20 to 30 layers of dead, scaly, interlocking keratinized cells called corneocytes
cells are anucleate (lack a nucleus) and tightly packed
thick vs thin skin
thin skin lacks a stratum lucidum, and covers most of the body
thick skin has no hair follicles or sebaceous glands and is found in the palms or soles
dermis
composed of two layers; papillary layer and reticular layer
papillary layer consists of
Dermal papillae - proje9ctions of the dermis toward the epidermis
- contains capillaries that supply nutrients to the epidermis and also contain sensory receptors
- interlock with epidermal ridges ( deep projections of epidermis ) increasing the surface area between epidermis and dermis
reticular layer
very vascular, forms the majority of its thickness, includes many blood vessels, glands, hair follicles and nerves
what the purpose of blood vessels
help control body temperatures and blood pressure
vasoconstriction
reduces blood flow to skin and helps conserve heat
vasodilation
increases blood flow to the skin, helps release heat
what is the purpose of nerves fibers in the dermis
monitor sensory receptors, control blood flow, control glandular secretion
what is the subcutaneous layer composed of
areolar and adipose connective tissue
what are the functions of the subcutaneous layer
protects underlying structures, stores energy, thermal insulation
nail matrix
thickened growing part of the nail bed
lunula
white semilunar proximal area of nail body caused by thickened underlying stratum basale obscuring capillaries in dermis
nail folds
overlap the lateral and proximal edges
eponychium (cuticle)
a narrow band of epidermis that extends from the margin of the nail onto the nail body
hyponychium
a region of thickened stratum corneum over which the free edge of the nail projects
function of hair
protection, heat retention, sensory reception, visual identification
hair bulb
deep swelling of epithelial cells where hair orignates
hair root
portion that is deep to skin surface
hair shaft
portion that extends beyond skin surface
function of the merocrine sweat glands
thermoregulation, protection from microbes, secretion of various substances
apocrine sweat glands
secrete into hair follicles at armpits, nipples, groin, anus
sebaceous glands
secrete oily sebum
three kinds of cartilage
hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrous cartilage
chondroblasts
immature cartilage cells, produce extracellular matrix
chondrocytes
mature cartilage cells in lacunae
extracellular matrix
protein fibers and ground substance
functions of cartilage
supports tissues, gliding surface at articulations, model for formation of bones
functions of bone
support and protection, movement, hemopoiesis (blood cell production), storage of mineral and energy reserves
diaphysis
elongated, cylindrical shaft
medullary cavity: filled with yellow marrow
metaphysis
region between diaphysis and epiphysis
contains the epiphyseal plate
epiphysis
enlarged regions at each end , attachment site for tendons and ligaments, bone to bone articulation
red bone marrow - hemopoiesis
periosteum
covers the external surface of the bone, except where hyaline cartilage is, dense irregular CT, attached by perforating fibers
cells: osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts
endosteum
covers internal surfaces: medullary cavity, central canals, perforating canals
cells: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteoprogenitor cells
osteoprogenitor cells
stem cells derived from mesenchyme, become osteoblasts, located in periosteum and endosteum
osteoblasts
secrete osteoid - semisolid, organic, bone matrix
produces new bone
once entrapped in the matrix they differentiate into osteocytes
osteocytes
mature bone cells, reside in the lacunae, maintain bone matrix and detect mechanical stress on bone
osteoclasts
phagocytic cells, ruffles border where in contact with bone, increased surface area, bone resorption: process by which osteoclasts break down bone tissue and release minerals into the blood
compact bone
solid and relatively dense, external surfaces of long and flat bones, functional unit: osteon
spongy bone
open lattice of narrow plates, internal surface of bones, lightens the weight of bones
osteon
cylindrical structures, run parallel to the diaphysis
central canal
carries blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics
concentric lamellae
rings of bone around central canal
osteocytes
housed in the lacunae
canaliculi
interconnecting channels
perforating canals
run perpendicular to central canals
blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics
circumferential lamellae
rings of bone immediately internal to the periosteum or internal to the endosteum
run the entire circumference of the bone
interstitial lamellae
leftover parts of osteons that have been partially resorbed
microscopic anatomy of spongy bone
no osteons, parallel lamellae ( make up trabeculae), osteocytes in lacunae, forms cavities filled with red bone marrow
ossification
formation and development of osseous connective tissue, developed through either intramembranous ossification or endochondral ossification
intramembranous ossification
ossification centers form within thickened regions of mesenchyme, starting in the 8th week of development
osteoid undergoes calcification
woven bone and surrounding periosteum form
lamellar bone replaces woven bone as compact bone and spongy bone form
endochondral ossification
the fetal hyaline cartilage model develops
cartilage calcifies, and a periosteal bone collar forms
the primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis
secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses
bone replaces cartilage, except articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates
epiphyseal plates ossify and form epiphyseal lines
functions of axial skeleton
forms a framework that supports and protects organs
houses special sense organs (hearing, balance, taste, smell, vision)
provides areas for attachment of skeletal muscle
what three regions are apart of the axial skeleton
skull, vertebral cloumn, thoracic cage
function of appendicular skeleton
provides areas for attachment of skeletal muscles
what does the appendicular skeleton consist of
bones of the appendages, bones that hold the limbs to the trunk of the body
synarthrosis
immovable
amphiarthosis
slightly movable
diarthrosis
freely movable
synovial
bones seperated by a fluid filled cavity
cartilaginous
bones joined together by cartilage
fibrous
bones held together by dense regular CT
gomphosis
periodontal membranes hold tooth to bony jaw
suture
dense regular CT connects skull bones
syndesmosis
dense regular CT fibers between bones
synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage between bones
synarthrosis
symphysis
fibrocartilage between bones
amphiarthrosis
plane joints
side to side movement
uniaxial
hinge joints
like hinge of a door
uniaxial
pivot joints
one bone rotates on its longitudinal axis
uniaxial
condylar joints
oval, concave surface of one bone, convex to the other
biaxial
saddle joints
joint surfaces resemble saddle shape
biaxial
ball and socket joints
spherical head into cuplike socket
multiaxial
gliding motion
two opposing articular surfaces slide past each other in almost every direction; amount of movement is minimal
rotational motion
a bone turns on its longitudinal axis
angular motion
the angle between articulating bones increases or decreases
ex: flexion, adduction
what is Myasthenia Gravis (MG) and Lambert Eaton Syndrome (LES)
both are diseases of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) but affect different regions of the NMJ
produces weak muscles
is MG autoimmune
yes
antibodies against ACh receptors
is LES autoimmune
yes
antibodies against voltage-gated calcium channels on the pre synaptic membrane
what are the three types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
skeletal muscle tissue
pulls on skeletal bones, voluntary contraction - somatic nervous system
cardiac muscle tissue
pushes blood through arteries and veins
rhythmic involuntary contractions ( pacemaker cells, autonomic nervous system )
smooth muscle tissue
pushes fluids and solids along the digestive tract, moves oocyte along the fallopian tube, move sperm along the ductus deferens, move urine along the ureter, dilates and constricts blood vessels
involuntary contraction - autonomic nervous system (ANS)
properties of a muscle tissue
excitability , conductivity, contractility, elasticity, extensibility
excitability
ability to respond to stimuli
conductivity
ability to transmit electrical events along the cell membrane
contractility
the ability to generate tension and shorten cell length
- sliding of contractile proteins in muscle cells leads to body movements and other muscle functions
elasticity
ability to return to resting length after shortening or lengthening
extensibility
ability to be stretched beyond resting length
skeletal muscle tissue
- muscle and muscle fibers vary in shape and size
- usually attached to bone
- each muscle contains all tissue types
function of a skeletal muscle
body movement, maintenance of posture, protection and support, regulating elimination of materials, heat production
fasicle
bundle of muscle fibers
myofibrils
complex, cylindrical organelles
what is the structural organization of skeletal muscle
skeletal muscle > fascicle > muscle fiber > myofibrils > myofilaments
endomysium
surrounds and insulates each muscle fiber
- areolar CT and reticular fibers
perimysium
surrounds fascicles
- dense irregular CT
epimysium
surrounds entire muscle
- dense irregular CT
tendon
formed by the CT layers
- cord-like structure
aponeurosis
thin, flattened CT attachment
- sheet like structure
origin
less mobile attachment site
insertion
more mobile attachment site
sarcolemma
plasma membrane
sarcoplasm
cytoplasm
sarcoplasmic reticulum
smooth er
- stores calcium ions to initiate a muscle contraction
transverse tubules
deep invaginations of sarcolemma; passage of impulse
terminal cisternae
expanded ends of SR
triad
2 terminal cisterna and 1 transverse tubule
what do myofibrils consist of
thick - myosin
myosin heads
consists of bundles of myofilaments
thin - actin
troponin
tropomyosin
what is a sarcomere
a functional unit within a myofibril
spans from Z disc to the next Z disc
how does a contraction of skeletal muscle work
contracting muscles pull on tendons to produce movement
to pull, muscles develop tension as their sarcomeres shorten
for sarcomeres to shorten, thick filaments attach to thin filaments and pull them toward the centers of the sarcomeres
synaptic knob/terminal button
tip of telodendria
synaptic vesicles
membrane sacs in synaptic knob, filled with acetylcholine
synaptic cleft
narrow space separating synaptic knob and motor end plate
motor end plate
region of sarcolemma with many folds
A Ch receptor
a protein that bind ACh on motor end plate
acetylcholinesterase
an enzyme in synaptic cleft that breaks down ACh
agonist ( prime mover)
muscle that contract to perform a particular movement
ex: triceps brachii an against of forearm extension
antagonist
muscle whose action opposes the agonist
synergist
muscle that assists the agonist in performing its action
what are the two components to sensory nerves
somatic sensory and visceral sensory
- somatic : touch, pain, pressure
- visceral : input from blood vessels
what are the two components to motor nerves
somatic motor and autonomic motor
somatic : conducts impulses that cause a contraction in skeletal muscles
autonomic: conducts impulses that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands
glial cells
non excitable cells that support and protect the neurons
neurons
electrically excitable cells that initiate, transmit, and recieve nerve impulseswha
what are the four types of glial cells in CNS
astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes
what are the two types of glial cells in PNS
schwann cells and satilite cells
astrocyte
BBB, large cell with numerous processes, supports neuronal health
ependymal cell
lines ventricles of brain and central canal of spinal cord, assists in the production and circulation of CSF
MICROGILAL cells
defends against pathogens, removes debris, phagocytizes waste
oligodendrocytes
rounded cells with cytoplasmic extensions, associated with CNS axons only , produces a myelin sheath which insulates the axon
satellite cells
flat cells that are clustered around neuronal cell bodies in ganglia , regulate fluid composition around neuron cell body in ganglia
schwann cells ( neurolemmocytes)
associated with PNS axons only , produces myelin sheath which insulates the axon, similar in structure and function to the oligodendrocytes
endoneurium
surrounds each axon
perineurium
surrounds fascicles
epineurium
surrounds bundles of fascicles
