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biology > Exam III > Flashcards

Exam III Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Photosynthesis

A
  • the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy within chloroplasts
  • nourishes almost the entire living world directly or indirectly
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2
Q

Autotrophs

A

“self-feeders” that sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms
- producers of the biosphere

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3
Q

Heterotrophs

A

obtain organic material from other organisms; they are the consumers of the biosphere

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4
Q

the pigment that gives leaves their green color, resides in the thylakoid membranes

A

Plants and other photosynthetic organisms contain organelles called chloroplasts

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5
Q

Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the ____, the interior tissue of the leaf

A

mesophyll

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6
Q

CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called

A

stomata

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7
Q

A chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes surrounding a dense fluid called the

A

stroma

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8
Q

____ are connected sacs in the chloroplast that compose a third membrane system

A

thylakoids

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9
Q

Wavelength

A

a measure of the distance between crests of electromagnetic waves•

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10
Q

electromagnetic spectrum

A

the entire range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation

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11
Q

Visible light

A

drives photosynthesis and produces the colors seen by the human eye

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12
Q

Light also behaves as though it consists of discrete particles, called

A

photons

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13
Q

spectrophotometer

A

measures a pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths

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14
Q

absorption spectrum

A

a graph plotting a pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength

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15
Q

action spectrum for photosynthesis

A

a profile of the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths, confirms the effectiveness of violet-blue and red light

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16
Q

carotenoids

A

yellow or orange because they absorb violet and blue-green light

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17
Q

photosystem

A

consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes

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18
Q

reaction-center complex

A

an association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor

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19
Q

light-harvesting complex

A

transfer the energy of photons to the chlorophyll a molecules in the reaction-center complex

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20
Q

primary electron acceptor

A

the reaction center accepts excited electrons and is reduced as a result

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21
Q

Linear electron flow

A

the primary pathway, involves both photosystems and produces ATP and NADPH using light energy

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22
Q

cyclic electron flow

A

photoexcited electrons cycle back from Fd to the cytochrome complex instead of being transferred to NADP+

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23
Q

Interphase

A
  • the cell grows
  • in preparation for cell division
  • chromosomes are duplicated
  • DNA duplicated
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24
Q

Prophase

A

genetic materials inside the nucleus condenses and chromosomes become visible

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25
Q

Pro-metaphase

A
  • nuclear membrane breaks down

- spindle fibers attach to the centromere of the sister chromatids

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26
Q

metaphase

A

spindle fibers move the mitotic chromosomes to the middle of the cell
- line up at the cell plate

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27
Q

anaphase

A

sister chromatids are separated and pulled apart. The cell lengthens
- chromosomes at opposite poles

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28
Q

telophase

A

spindle fibers disappear and chromosomes uncoil

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29
Q

Cytokinesis

A

the cell divides into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
- the division of the cytoplasm

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30
Q

mitosis

A

the chromosome copies are separated from each other and moved to opposite ends of the cell
- the division of the genetic material in the nucleus

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31
Q

Somatic cells

A

(non-reproductive cells) have two sets of chromosomes

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32
Q

Gametes

A

(reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells

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33
Q

joined copies of the original chromosome

A

sister chromatids

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34
Q

Centromere

A

the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached

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35
Q

mitotic (M) phase

A

mitosis and cytokinesis

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36
Q

Divisions of interphase

A

–G1 phase(“first gap”)
–S phase(“synthesis”)
–G2 phase(“second gap”)

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37
Q

mitotic spindle

A

a structure made of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis

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38
Q

In animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the ____

A

centromere

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39
Q

aster

A

a radial array of short microtubules

extends from each centrosome

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40
Q

spindle

A

includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters

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41
Q

kinetochore

A

a protein complex associated with centromeres

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42
Q

metaphase plate

A

an imaginary plane midway between the spindle’s two poles

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43
Q

Cohesins

A

a ring of protein complexes that keep the sister chromatids together along their length.

44
Q

In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as

A

cleavage

45
Q

cleavage furrow

A

a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate

46
Q

In plant cells, a ___ forms during cytokinesis

A

cell plate

47
Q

Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called ____

A

binary fission

48
Q

In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the ____, and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart

A

origin of replication

49
Q

The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct

A

cell cycle control system

50
Q

The clock has specific ___ where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received

A

checkpoints

51
Q

Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle control:

A

cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)

52
Q

MPF

A

a cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers a cell’s passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase

53
Q

If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a non-dividing state called the

A

G0 phase

54
Q

____ are released by certain cells and stimulate other cells to divide

A

growth factors

55
Q

In density-dependent inhibition,

A

crowded cells will stop dividing

56
Q

Most animal cells also exhibit _____—to divide, they must be attached to a substratum

A

anchorage dependence

57
Q

Cells that acquire the ability to divide indefinitely have undergone

A

transformation

58
Q

If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump is called a

A

Benign tumor

59
Q

___ invade surrounding tissues and can undergo ___, the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors

A

malignant tumors

metasis

60
Q

heredity

A

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next is called inheritance

61
Q

The study of heredity and inherited variation is called ___

A

genetics

62
Q

Genes

A

the units of heredity and are made up of segments of DNA

63
Q

Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called ___

A

gametes

64
Q

Humans have __ chromosomes in the nuclei of their ___

A

46

somatic cells

65
Q

A gene’s specific position along a chromosome is called its

A

locus

66
Q

In asexual reproduction

A

a single individual passes all of its genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes

67
Q

Clone

A

an individual or group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent

68
Q

sexual reproduction

A

two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents

69
Q

life cycle

A

Is the generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism

70
Q

karyotype

A

an ordered display of the pairs of chromosomes from a cell

71
Q

The two chromosomes in each pair are called

A

homologs

72
Q

determine the sex of the individual, are called X and Y

A

sex chromosomes

73
Q

Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes

A

(XX)

74
Q

Male chromosomes

A

(XY)

75
Q

The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called

A

autosomes

76
Q

Human somatic cells have __ pairs of chromosomes

A

23

77
Q

diploid cell

A

(2n) has two sets of chromosomes

78
Q

A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set of chromosomes and is thus a

A

haploid cell(n)

79
Q

Each set of 23 consists of __ autosomes and __ sex chromosome - haploid cell

A

22

one

80
Q

For humans, the diploid number is

A

46 (2n= 46)

81
Q

Fertilization

A

the union of gametes (the sperm and the egg)

82
Q

The fertilized egg is called a ___ and has one set of chromosomes from each parent

A

zygote

83
Q

Gametes are the only type of human cells produced by ___

A

meiosis

84
Q

Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation of generations

A

This life cycle includes both a diploid and haploid multicellular stage

85
Q

Mitosis vs Meiosis: Mitosis

A
  • Occurs in all organisms
  • Creates body cells
  • One cell division
  • no crossing over
  • 2 diploid cells
  • identical daughter cells
86
Q

Mitosis vs Meiosis: Meiosis

A
  • animals, plants, fungi
  • creates sex cells
  • two cell divisions
  • crossing over occurs in prophase
  • 4 haploid daughter cells
  • daughter cells genetically different
87
Q

meiosis I

A

–Prophase I
–Metaphase I
–Anaphase I
–Telophase I and cytokinesis

88
Q

Prophase I

A

each chromosome pairs with its homolog and crossing over occurs

89
Q

X-shaped regions called ___ are sites of crossovers

A

chiasmata

90
Q

Metaphase I

A

homologous chromosome line up at the equatorial plate of the cell

91
Q

Anaphase I

A

pairs of homologous chromosomes separate

92
Q

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

A

nuclear membrane reforms around the separated chromosomes

- two new diploid cells are formed

93
Q

In animal cells, a__ forms; in plant cells, a __forms

A
  • cleavage furrow

- cell plate

94
Q

meiosis II

A

–prophase II
- metaphase II
–anaphase II
–telophase II and cytokinesis

95
Q

Prophase II

A
  • In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms

* In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate

96
Q

metaphase II

A
  • the sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate

- The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles

97
Q

Anaphase II

A

The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles

98
Q

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

A
  • In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles

* Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing

99
Q

Crossing Over and Synapsis

A zipper-like structure called the ___holds the homologs together tightly

A

synaptonemal complex

100
Q

During synapsis,

A

DNA breaks are repaired, joining DNA from one nonsister chromatid to the corresponding segment of another

101
Q

Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis I

A
    1. Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I
      –2. Alignment of homologous pairs at the metaphase plate
      –3. Separation of homologs during anaphase
102
Q

Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:

A

–Independent assortment of chromosomes
–Crossing over
–Random fertilization

103
Q

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

A

In independent assortment, each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

104
Q

Crossing over produces ____, which combine DNA inherited from each parent

A

recombinant chromosomes

105
Q

Random Fertilization

A

Random fertilization adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)

106
Q

The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations

A
  • Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the environment
  • Mutations are the original source of different alleles

biology (6 decks)

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