Exam II Flashcards
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
Polymer
The repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer.
monomer
The most important large molecules found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
macromolecules
Specialized macromolecules that increase the frequency of chemical reactions.
catalyst
A reaction in which two molecules are disassembled by addition of H2O.
Dehydration Reaction
A hydrocarbon chain of a fat that has no double bonds, making fats solid at room temperature.
saturated fat
This hydrocarbon chain has one or more double bonds, making fats liquid at room temperature.
unsaturated fat
Condensation Reaction
aka Dehydration Reaction
two monomers covalently bond to one another with the loss of a water molecule
Hydrolysis Reaction
chemical breakdown of a molecule due to reaction with water
What are the four important classes of biological molecules? Which of these are polymers and which are not?
- Protein
- Nucleic Acid
- Lipids - not a polymer
- Carbohydrates
Macromolecules
A large polymer
Monomer
building blocks for polymers
polymer
a chain made of monomers
Monomers for carbs, proteins, nucleic acids
carbs - monosaccharides
protein - amino acids
nucleic acid - nucleotide
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide - simplest
starch - polysaccharide responsible for storage in plants. monomer = glucose
glycogen
storage molecule in animals
Disaccharide
two monosaccharides bonded through a dehydration reaction
Fats
- glycerol and three fatty acids -> triglycerol or triglyceride
saturated fats
no double bonds, more H atoms
solid
unsaturated fats
one or more double bonds
liquid at room temp
phospholipid
two fatty acids and a phosphate attached to a glycerol
- hydrophobic: two fatty acid tails
Hydrophilic: phosphate head
steroid
lipids made of four fused rings, carbon skeleton.
ex. cholesterol, component of animal cell membrane, impact fluidity
proteins
polypeptides
- unbranched polymer built from amino acid
- one or more polypeptide chains to make a protein
there are ___ amino acids
20
3 same groups - hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino group
R group - give characteristics
Glycosidic linkage
covalent bond between monosaccharides
This macromolecule consists of simple sugars and polymers of sugars.
carbohydrates
The monomers of carbohydrates are simple sugars.
Monosaccharide
The most common monosaccharide, is of central importance in the chemistry of life.
glucose
The large biological molecule that does not include true polymers and are very hydrophobic.
lipids
A molecule that has a long carbon skeleton and connects to a glycerol to make a fat.
fatty acid
steroids
lipids consisting of a carbon skeleton and four fused rings
Is a biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides.
protein
unbranched polymers built from amino acids
polypeptides
Also called the side chain, this variable group differs with each amino acid.
R Group
chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction.
Catalysts
Covalent bonds that further reinforce the shape of a tertiary structure in polypeptides.
Disulfide Bridge
Compounds that make up DNA molecules with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous base.
Nucleic Acid
Enzymatic Proetins
Regulates metabolism and other chemical reactions by acting as a catalyst
Defensive Proteins
proteins that protect against diseases
storage proteins
proteins that store amino acids
Transport proteins
Transport substances
Hormonal proteins
Coordination of an organisms hormonal activities
Receptor Proteins
responds to chemical stimuli
contractile and motor proteins
movement
structural proteins
support
nonpolar
hydrocarbon chains
polar
uncharged electronegative atom
acidic
negative charge on an electronegative atom
basic
positive charge on an electronegative atom
Primary level
unique sequence of amino acids
secondary structure
coils and folds of polypeptide chains
Tertiary structure
interactions among various side chains
Quaternary structure
results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
What factors can affect protein folding
heat, mechanical agitation, PH, salt concentrations
DNA
double stranded
double helix
deoxyribose
ATGC
RNA
Single stranded
AUGC
ribose
Purines
AG
Pyrimidines
TUC
A type of microscopy that shoots electrons at a specimen in order to produce an image.
Transmission Electron microscope
organelles are suspended in this system
cytosol
This ratio determines the size of the cell.
surface to volume ratio
The nucleus is enclosed by the
nuclear envelope
The complex made up of DNA and proteins
chromatin
The site of rRNA synthesis.
Nucleoid
The site of protein synthesis.
ribosome
Consists of the nuclear envelope, the ER, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles.
Endomembrane system
Stores calcium and synthesizes lipids
smooth ER
Modifies polypeptide chains after they leave the ribosome.
Rough ER
Packages, exports, and modifies proteins received from the ER.
Golgi apparatus
The lysosome is a digestive enzyme that recycles old organelles and organic material through a process known as
autophagy
This central organelle in plants helps maintain water in cell
central vacuole
Light Microscope
visible light through specimen and then through glass lens
used to study sub cellular structures
Electron Microscope
Scanning Electron Microscopes:
focuses electrons on specimen and then the image looks 3D
Transmission Electron Microscopes:
focuses electrons through the specimen
Magnification
Ratio of an images size
Resolution
Measure of clarity of an image
contrast
visible differences in brightness between parts of a sample
What is cell fractionation?
process that takes a cell apart and analyzes the organelles
Nucleus
- makes DNA
- enclosed by nuclear envelope, lipid bilayer
plasma membrane
made of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
- selective barrier
- oxygen, waste, water, nutrients
Ribosomes
makes proteins
free floating outside of nucleus
Golgi Apparatus
sorts and transports modified products through vesicles
lysosome
membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
- digest macromolecules
Mitochondria/Chloroplast
m: cellular respiration
c: photosynthesis
Ectoplasmic reticulum
Smooth: synthesize lipids, store calcium
Rough: distributes transport vesicles, membrane factory if cell
Peroxisomes
Remove hydrogen to oxygen
- produces hydrogen peroxide
Vacuoles
derived from ER and golgi apparatus
Endomembrane System responsible for?
- organization
- regulate traffic
- perform metabolic function
Microtubles
thickest
- support
- mobility
microfilaments
thinnest
- contraction
- cytoplasmic streaming
- cell division
intermediate filaments
- middle sized
- coiled into cables
microfilaments
form a cortex just inside the plasma membrane to help support the cell shape
Tight Junctions
membranes pressed together to prevent leakage
desmosomes
fasten cells together in strong sheets
Gap junctions (communicating)
provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
Prokaryotic
- no nucleus
- no membrane bound organelles
- bacteria and archaea
- DNA in nucleotide
Eukaryotic
- nucleus
- membrane bound organelles
- larger than prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic
- plasma membrane
- cytosol
- ribosomes
- chromosomes
Metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones.
catabolic pathway
Metabolic pathway that absorbs energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
anabolic pathway
Energy associated with relative motion of objects.
kinetic energy
The potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction.
chemical energy
Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.
thermal energy
First Law of Thermodynamics
energy can be transferred or transformed but cannot be created nor destroyed
A measure of molecular disorder, or randomness.
entropy
the portion of the systems energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system
Free energy
free energy __ when a reaction is pushed away from equilibrium
increases
free energy __ when a reaction is pushed toward equilibrium
decreases
a reaction that is spontaneous and proceeds with a net release of energy
exergonic
a reaction that is non spontaneous and absorbs free energy
endergonic
the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic process
energy coupling
potential energy
potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
thermodynamics
Second law of thermodynamics
every energy transformation increases the entropy of the universe
the portion of a systems energy that can perform work
Free energy
Delta G
Free Energy
Negative (-) - spontaneous, exergonic, stable
Positive (+) - non spontaneous, endergonic, unstable
Delta S (Entropy = Disorder)
Negative (-) - non spontaneous, endergonic, unstable
Positive (+) - spontaneous, exergonic, stable
Delta H (enthalpy=heat)
Negative (-) - spontaneous, exergonic, stable
Positive (+) - non spontaneous, endergonic, unstable
Energy enters ecosystem as _____________________ and ultimately leaves as ________________.
light, heat
Photosynthesis:
6Co2 + H2O + light = O2 + C6H12O6
waste products = oxygen, glucose
Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + O2 = 6Co2 + H2O + ATP
waste: carbon dioxide, water
Catabolic pathways yield _____________ by __________________ (stripping electrons from) organic fuels.
energy, oxidizing
Reducing Agent
- electron donor, releases the electron acceptor
- addition of a electrons to a substance
Oxidizing Agent
- The electron acceptor, oxidizes electron donor
- loss of electrons
electron carriers
alternate between oxidized and reduced states as they accept and donate electrons
Fermentation:
partial degradation of sugars without oxygen
Aerobic Respiration:
consumes organic molecules and oxygen and yields ATP
Glycolysis
breaks down molecules into two molecules of pyruvate
Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle (aka KrebsCycle):
oxidizes fuel generated by glycolysis and produces 1ATP 3NADH 1FADH2 = X2 per glucose 2CO2 = waste
Oxidative Phosphorylation:
Reaction that produces 90% of the ATP from ADP
Uses the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
Glycolysis
- occurs in the cytosol
- 2 major phases:
- energy investment - 2 ATP are used to split glucose into 2 three carbon sugar molecules
- energy payoff - 4 ATP are synthesized, 2 NAD+ are reduced to NADH, the small sugars are oxidized to form two pyruvate
- net: 2 ATP
- Doesn’t need O2 to start
- Doesn’t release CO2
Oxidative Phosphorylation:
pyruvate converted to Acetyl COA before entering the citric acid cycle
pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyzes three reaction:
- oxidizes carboxyl
- NAD+ -> NADH
- combination of 2c fragment with CoA to to form acetyl CoA
Citric Acid Cycle
Products: 1ATP, 3NADH, 1FADH2 per pyruvate
- 2co2 is a waste product
- occurs twice per glucose
- occurs inside mitochondria
- NADH carries electrons to ETC
Electron Transport Chain
- inner membrane of mitochondia
cristae helps increase surface area of ETC - donation of electrons powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
- O2 is used to form H2O
ETC prokaryotes
- embedded in plasma membrane
- no ATP produced
Chemiosmosis
- energy coupling mechanism used to produce ATP
- Free energy used to pump H+ across membrane through ATP synthesase
- moves to bind to rotor of ATP synthesase
H+ drives cellular work
90%
30-32 ATP molecules