exam definitions Flashcards
Central nervous
system (CNS)
the brain and the spinal cord; processes and coordinates responses to sensory stimuli
Brain
a complex structure that receives and processes sensory stimuli from the body and coordinates responses
Spinal cord
a dense bundle of nerves that carries sensory information from the body to the brain and motor information from the brain to the body
Spinal reflex
an involuntary and unconscious response to a stimulus involving the spinal cord, which occurs without input from the brain
Sensory receptor
a sensory nerve ending
Sensory neuron
a nerve cell that carries sensory signals along an afferent pathway throughout the nervous system
Interneuron
a nerve cell in the spinal cord and brain that connects motor and sensory neurons by relaying information
Motor neuron
a nerve cell that sends motor info along an efferent pathway to initiate motor movements
Peripheral
nervous system
all the nerves outside the CNS that carry messages between the CNS and muscles, organs and glands throughout the body
Somatic nervous
system
subdivision of PNS that carries sensory info to the CNS and motor info to the body
Autonomic
nervous system
a subdivision of PNS that controls the body’s internal environment in an autonomous or self regulated manner
Sympathetic
nervous system
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that increases our arousal, readying the body for a quick response
Parasympathetic
nervous system
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that controls the body’s internal environment in an autonomous or self-regulated manner
Unconscious
response
any response of our nervous system that does not require awareness
Conscious
response
any response of the nervous system that requires awareness
Neuron
an individual nerve cell that is specialised to receive, process and/or transmit information within the nervous system
Neural
transmission
an electrical impulse that occurs when a neuron is activated or fires
Neurotransmitter
a chemical produced by neurons that carries messages to other neurons or cells within the nervous system, including muscles, organs and glands
Synapse
the point of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and a target cell such as a muscle or gland
Synaptic vesicle
a membrane-bound sphere filled with neurotransmitter molecules
Synaptic gap
the space between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron
Receptor site
a membrane protein on the dendrites of neurons that receive and detect specific neurotransmitters
Excitatory effect
the increased likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential or neural impulse
Glutamate
the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, which is involved with learning and memory
Inhibitory effect
the decreased likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential or neural impulse
Gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA)
the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, associated with anxiety, specific phobias and Parkinson’s disease
Neuromodulator
a subclass of neurotransmitters that alter the strength of neural transmission, by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitter signals
Dopamine
a multifunctional neurotransmitter with both excitatory and inhibitory effects, that is involved in many central nervous system functions such as movement, pleasure, attention, mood, cognition and motivation
Reward pathway
a group ofvstructures invthe brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli
Serotonin
an inhibitory neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator, influencing a variety of brain activities
Serotonin
pathway
serotonin’s neuromodulatory system, which originates in the brainstem and extends to almost all areas of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex
Synaptic
plasticity
specific changes that occur within the synapse, between neurons
Long-term
potentiation (LTP)
the relatively permanent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated activation of a neural pathway
Long-term
depression (LTD)
the relatively permanent weakening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated low-level activation
Sprouting
the growth of axon or dendrite fibres at the synapse
Dendritic spine
a dendrite fibre that grows by sprouting on the post-synaptic neuron
Filigree
appendage
a fibre that grows by sprouting from the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron
Synaptogenesis
the formation of new synapses that result from the process of sprouting
Rerouting
the formation of new connections between neurons to establish alternative neural pathways
Pruning
the removal of excess neurons and synaptic connections to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions
Stressor
any event that causes stress or is perceived as a threat and a challenge to our ability to cope
Internal stressor
a cause of stress that originates within an individual; can be both psychological and biological/physiological
External stressor
a cause of stress that originates from outside an individual, such as an event or environmental extreme
Acute stress
stress that usually occurs because of a sudden threat and only lasts for a short time
Chronic stress
stress that lasts for a long time
Flight-or-fight-or-freeze response
an automatic biological response to a perceived stressor that increases our chances of survival in our environment
Cortisol
a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that regulates a wide range of bodily processes, including metabolism, and is released in response to stress
Gut–brain axis
(GBA)
the connection between the CNS and the ENS, that enables bidirectional communication between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract
Enteric nervous
system (ENS)
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that controls the digestive system
Vagus nerve
a nerve that connects the brain (CNS) to organs within the autonomic nervous system, via nerve fibres that directly link organs such as:
- lungs
- heart
- oesophagus
- intestinal tract
Gut
the gastrointestinal tract or long tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus
Gut microbiota
the microbe population found in the gut (digestive system)
Microbe
a microscopic living thing found in water, soil and the air
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
a biological model of stress that proposes we have a non-specific biological response to stress that occurs in three stages
Transactional
model of stress
and coping
a model that suggests a stress response is only elicited if an event is perceived to exceed our ability to cope and is based on our appraisal of the situation
Coping
all the things we do to manage and reduce the stress we experience
Coping strategy
a method that we use to manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor
Coping flexibility
the ability to modify our coping strategies to adapt and meet the demands of different stressful situations
Context-specific
effectiveness
when a coping strategy matches or is appropriate to the stressful situation
Approach strategy
an effort to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects
Avoidance strategy
an effort to avoid a stressor and not deal directly with it and its effects
Learning
the process of acquiring knowledge or skills resulting from experience; there are many approaches
Behaviourist
approach
an approach to learning that states that behaviours are learned through interactions with the environment
Conditioning
the learning process by which the behaviour of an organism becomes dependent on an event occurring in its environment
Stimulus
an environmental event that triggers a response in an organism
Response
a behavioural reaction to a stimulus
Classical
conditioning
a simple form of learning that occurs through repeated associations between two stimuli to produce a conditioned
response
Acquisition
the process during which an organism learns to associate two events (the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus)
Operant
conditioning
a learning process in which the likelihood of a voluntary behaviour occurring is determined by its consequences
Antecedent
an environmental stimulus that triggers an action
Behaviour
any observable action by an organism
Consequence
something that makes a behaviour more or less likely to occur again
Observational
learning
a type of social learning that occurs when a learner observes a model’s actions and their consequences to guide their future actions
Social-cognitive
approach
when individuals process, remember and learn information in social contexts to explain and predict their behaviour and that of others
Memory
an information processing system that actively receives, organises, stores and recovers information
Encoding
converting sensory information
into a useable from that can be processed by the brain
Storage
retaining information over time
Retrieval
accessing information that has previously been stored
Sensory memory
a memory store that receives and stores an unlimited amount of incoming sensory information for a brief time
Short-term
memory (STM)
a memory store that has limited capacity of short duration, unless the information is renewed
Displacement
adding new single items to short-term memory by pushing out old items
Decay
the fading away of information in short-term memory when not maintained by rehearsal
Rehearsal
the conscious manipulation of information to keep it in short- term memory for longer or to transfer it to long-term memory
Long-term
memory (LTM)
memory that is relatively permanent and holds huge amounts of information for a long time, possibly lifelong
Semantic information
information related to meaning
Explicit memory
information that can be consciously retrieved and stated, such as ‘known facts’
Declarative
memory
an explicit long- term memory of specific facts and events, most of which can be stated or ‘declared’
Semantic
memory
the declarative memory of facts or knowledge about the world
Episodic memory
the declarative memory of personally experienced events
Implicit memory
memory not requiring conscious retrieval, such as ‘how to’ skills
Reconstruction
the combining of stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent, complete or accurate memory
Autobiographical memory
a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory
Episodic future thinking
projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience an event that might happen
in your personal future
Mental time travel
the capacity to mentally reconstruct past personal events and imagine possible future scenarios
Amnesia
a permanent or temporary, complete or partial loss of memory
Alzheimer’s disease
a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the progressive deterioration of brain neurons, causing memory loss, decline in cognitive and social skills and personality changes
Dementia
a collection of symptoms that are caused by disorders affecting the brain
Brain scan
an examination of the brain that shows brain activity and tissues that cannot be detected otherwise
Lesion
a damaged or abnormal area of the brain that may appear like a scar or wound
Amyloid plaque
an abnormal build-up of beta-amyloid proteins between the synapses of neurons that interfere with communication
Neurofibrillary tangle
an abnormal build-up of protein inside a neuron that is associated with cell death
Brain atrophy
the loss of neurons within the brain
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to form new explicit long- term memories after an amnesia-causing event
Retrograde amnesia
the inability to retrieve previously stored memories after an amnesia- causing event
Aphantasia
the inability to visualise imagery
Visual cortex
the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates and processes visual information relayed from the retinas
Congenital
present from birth
Acquired
present after brain injury or a significant psychological event
Mnemonic
any technique used for improving or enhancing memory
Written culture
a culture in which stories and information are shared and preserved through the processes of reading and writing
Method of loci
a mnemonic system that commits a familiar location or sequence of locations to memory, then visually links them with information that needs to be recalled
Acronym
an abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word and pronounced as a single word
Acrostic
a phrase (or poem) in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help with recall
Oral culture
a culture in which information and stories are communicated by word of mouth
Sung narrative
a story told through singing, music and sometimes dance
Dreaming
a guide to life and living; Dreaming is not just stories, it is art, songs, dance; it is written into the land itself
Songline
one of many sung narratives of the landscape that weave across Country and enable every significant place in Aboriginal Dreaming to be known
Consciousness
the awareness of your own internal mental processes, including your thoughts, feelings, sensations and perceptions, and your awareness of the external world around you
Psychological construct
a concept that cannot be objectively observed or measured directly through the collection of data, but is widely understood to exist
Normal waking consciousness
a state associated with being aware of our internal and external environments
Altered state of consciousness
any state that differs in awareness when compared to normal waking consciousness
Naturally occurring
altered state of consciousness
an altered state of consciousness that occurs without any external influence
Induced
altered state of consciousness
an altered state of consciousness that has been brought about on purpose
Sleep
a naturally occurring and reversible altered state of consciousness, characterised by a reduction in awareness and responsiveness to external surroundings
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
a type of sleep characterised by a progressive decline in physiological activity
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
a type of sleep characterised by quick darting of the eyes behind closed eyelids and an increase in physiological activity
Hypnogram
a line graph that represents the stages of sleep plotted against time
Polysomnography
a multi-parameter sleep study used as a diagnostic tool in sleep medicine
Electro- encephalography (EEG)
a technique that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain
Electromyography (EMG)
a technique that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the skeletal muscles
Electro- oculography (EOG)
a technique that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the muscles controlling the eyes
Sleep diary
a subjective self-report tool used by a person to track their own sleep and wake patterns
Video monitoring
a sleep study tool used to collect qualitative visual and audio information about a person’s sleep
Circadian rhythm
biological processes that coordinate the timing of body activities over a 24-hour period
Ultradian rhythm
biological processes that coordinate the timing of body activities over a period of less than 24 hours
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
a master body clock in the hypothalamus that regulates body activities to a daily schedule of sleep and wakefulness
Zeitgeber
an environmental cue such as light, temperature and eating patterns that
can synchronise and regulate the body’s circadian rhythm
Melatonin
a hormone
that induces drowsiness and decreases cell activity
Life span
the period of time a person is alive
Partial sleep deprivation
the experience of achieving inadequate sleep in terms of quantity or quality
Affective functioning
a person’s experience of their emotions
Behavioural functioning
a person’s observable actions
Cognitive functioning
a person’s mental processing
Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
the percentage of alcohol in the bloodstream
Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
a category of sleep disorders in which sleep is disrupted because the circadian rhythm and a person’s sleep–wake schedule are misaligned
Bright light therapy
a therapy to treat a sleep disorder in which the person is exposed to a bright light to reset the sleep– wake cycle
Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS)
a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by a delay in the timing of sleep onset and awakening compared with the timing that is desired
Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD)
a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by an advance in the timing
of sleep onset and awakening compared to the timing that is desired
Shift work
work that regularly takes place outside
of normal business hours, particularly
at night and the very early morning;
can cause a circadian rhythm sleep disorder
Sleep hygiene
the sleep-related behaviours and environmental conditions that are beneficial for sleep
Zeitgeber
an environmental cue such as light, temperature and eating patterns that can synchronise and regulate the body’s circadian rhythm
Daylight
all direct and indirect sunlight during the daytime
Blue light
a part of the visible light spectrum that is emitted from smartphone screens, computer monitors, televisions, LED and fluorescent light bulbs, as well as sunlight
Mental health and wellbeing
a beneficial emotional state in which a person realises their abilities, copes with the normal stresses of life, works productively and contributes to their community
Resilience
the ability to recover from adversity
Mentally healthy
the state of not having difficulty with everyday activities and displaying resilience
High level of functioning
the ability to carry out a wide range of daily activities, attend to self- care, maintain interpersonal relationships and demonstrate resilience in the face of everyday challenges
Wellbeing
a complex combination of a person’s physical, social, emotional, mental and spiritual health that is linked to happiness and life satisfaction
Social wellbeing
relates to the connections you make with other people and your ability to get along with people in a community
Emotional wellbeing
relates to the ability to feel a range of emotions and express them in a positive way
Life stressor
an everyday or conceivable event, such as
a relationship breakdown, work challenge or failing a test
Mental health problem
a relatively short- term disruption that impacts on a person’s everyday functioning
Mental disorder
a condition that affects mood, thinking and behaviour and is typically long lasting
External factor
a factor that influences mental wellbeing and originates from outside a person, such
as the physical and social environment
Internal factor
a factor that influences mental wellbeing and originates from within a person, such
as genetics and hormones
Biological factor
a factor that relates to the physiological functioning of the body
Psychological factor
a factor that relates to the functioning
of the brain and the mind, including cognitive and affective processes such as thought patterns and memory
Social factor
a factor that relates to the social components of a person’s environment
Stress
a state of mental or emotional and physiological tension, resulting from factors that are perceived to challenge
or threaten our ability to cope
Anxiety
an emotion akin to worrying and uneasiness that something is wrong or something bad is going to happen, usually accompanied by physiological signs
Phobia
a persistent, intense, irrational fear of a specific object or event
Protective factor
a factor that plays a role in decreasing the chance of developing a mental disorder
Biological risk factor
a factor that relates to the physiological functioning of the body, and may contribute to mental disorders
Genetic vulnerability
an increased likelihood
that a person will develop a particular mental disorder because of their DNA
Stigma
the feeling of shame or disgrace associated with a personal characteristic that indicates you belong to a culturally devalued group in society – this can be real or imagined
Mindfulness meditation
the practice of observing the present moment, suspending judgements,
and focusing on something calm and peaceful
Specific phobia
a persistent, intense, irrational fear of a specific object or event
Gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA)
the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, associated with anxiety, specific phobias and Parkinson’s disease
Glutamate
the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, involved with learning and memory
Dysfunctional GABA system
a failure to produce, release or receive the correct amount of gamma- aminobutyric acid
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
the relatively permanent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result
of repeated activation of a neural pathway
Behavioural model
phobias are learned through experience
and may be developed, sustained or modified by environmental consequences such as rewards or punishments
Precipitate
trigger the onset or exacerbation of a mental disorder
Perpetuation
prolonging of the occurrence of a mental disorder and preventing recovery
Avoidance behaviour
actions a person takes to escape from difficult thoughts and feelings
Cognitive model
a model that describes how people’s perceptions of situations influence their emotional and behavioural reactions
Cognitive bias
the tendency to think in a way that involves errors of judgement and faulty decision- making
Memory bias
distorted thinking that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory or alters its content
Catastrophic thinking
a cognitive bias that involves overestimating and exaggerating the worst possible outcomes to situations even though they are unlikely to occur
Specific environmental trigger
an object, situation or circumstance that probably caused a direct, negative traumatic experience associated with extreme fear or discomfort, which then acts as a cue for future phobic fear responses
Evidence-based intervention
a treatment shown to be effective in valid and reliable research studies
Biological intervention
a treatment targeting physiological mechanisms believed to contribute to a condition
Benzodiazepine
a type of agonist drug that works on the central nervous system to make the post-synaptic neuron less likely to fire, which regulates anxiety
Agonist
a type of drug that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter that binds to the same receptor by stopping the presynaptic neuron from firing
Hyperventilation
rapid, shallow breathing
Breathing retraining
an anxiety management technique that involves teaching someone with a specific phobia how to control their breathing in the presence of their phobic stimulus
Psychological intervention
treatment that uses activities such as psychotherapy to modify thoughts, feelings and behaviours
Psychotherapy
any talking therapy designed to help people with a broad range of mental health issues
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
a common intervention consisting
of a range of cognitive and behavioural therapies and learning principles to help people identify and change unhelpful thought processes, feelings and behaviours to more helpful ones
Systematic desensitisation
a method for treating phobias in which the phobic stimulus is progressively introduced while the person uses relaxation techniques until their fear is replaced by a relaxation response
Relaxation technique
any method or procedure that helps to induce a physiological and psychological relaxation response
Fear hierarchy
a list of anxiety- inducing experiences relating to the patient’s phobia, in order from easiest to confront, to the most difficult to confront
Social intervention
an intervention designed to increase social support for people with a mental illness
Psychoeducation
educating people diagnosed with mental health conditions and their family members about the disorder
and possible treatment options
