exam Flashcards
1
Q
digestive system
A
- the process when large complex molecules are broken down into simple substances
- animals make energy using food and oxygen
2
Q
teeth
A
carnivore - sharp ripping teeth - incisors, canines, premolars, molars herbivore - wide grinding teeth - premolars, molars omnivore - both kinds of teeth - incisors, canines, premolar, molar
3
Q
herbivore and omnivore digestive system
A
- long digestive system
- harder to digest cellulose
- bacteria in the intestines help
4
Q
carnivore digestive system
A
- short digestive system
- protein easier to digest then cellulose
5
Q
ruminant
A
teeth - some have no upper incisors or canines
large foregut - stomach has 4 chambers (human,reticulum, omasium,abomasum)
- richer and regurgitate feed to soften it
- foregut fermented - very large stomach, small intestine
e.g. sheep and cows
6
Q
non-ruminant
A
handgut fermenter - small stomach and large intestine/colon
simple digestive system - sharp incisors and no canines
- long gut with hind gut
e.g. horse, rabbit, human
7
Q
carnivore
A
- organisms that kills and eats animals e.g. fox
8
Q
herbivore
A
organism that eats living plants or parts of them
e.g. cow
9
Q
omnivore
A
- organism that eats both plants and animals
e. g. humans
10
Q
mechanical digestion
A
- when large pieces of food are broken down into smaller parts through chewing or muscular movement in the stomach. aim is to increase the surface area of food so it can be acted on by enzymes in chemical digestion
11
Q
chemical digestion
A
- when enzymes break down complex substances into their simplest form
e. g. carbs - glucose
12
Q
ruman
A
- the first and largest section of the stomach
- solid food is mixed and partially broken down
- the human contains millions of bacteria an other microbes that promote fermentation
13
Q
poultry
A
beak - no teeth can’t chew
crop - stores food
gizzard - crushes food using grit stones
vent - one opening for waste and reproduction
14
Q
main roles of digestive system
A
ingestion
digestion
absorption
egestion
15
Q
ingestion and adaptations
A
- taking in of nutrients into mouth
adaptations - organism choosing suitable food for ingestion
- mouth parts that assist in feeding behaviors
- physical features that assist in catching food
e.g. cheetah - speed
16
Q
digestion and adaptations
A
- chemical and mechanical breakdown of food into small molecules that can be absorbed
adaptations - structure/ shape and number of teeth
- structure of alimentary tract
- indicate the foods an animal can digest
17
Q
absorption
A
- the taking up of digested molecules into the internal environment of the cells digestive tract
18
Q
egestion
A
- the removal of waste food materials from the body
19
Q
transport system of the body 4 main function CS
A
- transportation of water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
- distribution of nutrients and removal of waste
- maintenance of body temperature
- circulation of hormones
20
Q
animal transport
A
- size and shape of animals affects the way nutrients and gases are transported to/from cells
21
Q
small organisms CS
A
- arthropods e.g. insects and snails
- open circulatory systems
- fluids circulating are not fully enclosed in blood vessels
- heart pops the lymph into large spaces and bathes the cells with nutrients and then re-enters the heart
22
Q
small/flat animals CS
A
e.g. flat worms or jelly fish
habitat - aquatic or high moisture region
- environment moves materials past cells
large Sa: vol ratio therefore substances diffuse in and out of their bodies fast
- no heart blood vessels or blood
- limited by the need for a high moisture environment
23
Q
large animals CS
A
- large and/or metabolically active organisms
- e.g. fish, birds and mammals
- aquatic or terrestrial environments
- closed circulation
- blood circulated inside a network of blood vessels
- muscular heart pumps blood through blood vessels under pressure
- 2,3,4 chambered heart
24
Q
blood parts
A
plasma - fluid that transports gases and waste
red blood cells - carry oxygen from the lungs to other body regions
white blood cells - to protect the body abasing foreign substances entering the body
platelets - fragments of cells that work to reduce blood loss by forming clots in the case of injury
25
fish CS
- 2 chambered heart (atrium and ventricle)
- closed circulation
- single circulation
26
amphibians CS
- 3 chambered heart
- left atrium, right atrium and ventricle
- double circulation
4 chambers, 2 halves
- right and left side
- double circulation
- right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs
- blood returns to the left side and piped to the rest of the body
- each side has 2 chambers (atrium and ventricle)
27
open vs closed system
```
define
O - heart pumps into open cavity, quick way to transport nutrients around the body, less efficient
C - heart pumps into network of vessels, more efficient, longer slower process, costs lots of energy
heart
O - more then one
C - 1
vessels
O - none or few
C - elaborate network
pressure
O - low pressure, slow movement
C - high pressure, fast movement
```
28
arteries
- carry blood away from the heart
- blood under great pressure
- thick, more muscular walls
29
veins
- carry blood to the heart
- blood under less pressure
- thinner walls, less muscular
30
capillaries
- move blood between veins and arteries and cells
- low pressure
- thin walls 1 cell thick
- huge surface area for exchange
31
gas exchange
- process by which the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between cells of an organism and the environment
- occurs by diffusion across a plasma membrane
32
breathing
- in order to extract oxygen from the air by the alveolus, air must enter the gas exchange area of the body and diffuse into cells
- air is moved in and out of the lungs by movement of the ribs and the diaphragm
- diffusion difference for oxygen traveling for the alveolus to red blood cells is very short
33
why do fish suffocate
- when out of water fish gill filaments stick togehter
- redoing SA of gills
- gases are not exchanged as when in water
- not enough O2 supply or CO2 removed
- poisoned by low pH enzymes reduce function
34
exchange across whole body surface
- small animals only
- large surface area to volume ratio
- body shapes are long and thin
e. g. earth worms and jelly fish
35
exchange across external gills
- gills can be damaged due to their delicate structure
36
exchange across internal gills
- water pass over the gills must be actively moving to maintain concentration gradient
- gills are protected from damage by being housed inside the animal
37
bird lungs
- high demand for oxygen
- metabolism is high and flight requires a lot of oxygen
- very efficient gas exchange system
- have air sacs to enable one way flow through lungs
38
bird lungs efficiency
large surface area - many tiny air capillaries
diffusion - short, thin walls
moist - air capillaries are wet
- conserve moisture
maintaining concentration gradient - air flows in one direction through the lungs regardless of inhaling or exhaling
39
exchange at the end of fine tubes through the body
- air diffuses through a tubular network
- spiracles
- insects breathe through spiracles allowing oxygen to travel along a network of tubes to reach their cells
40
mammal lungs and structure
- most efficient form of gas exchange
| - trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm
41
mammal lungs efficiency
large surface area - many small alveoli
diffusion - short thin capillary walls
moist - wet lining
maintaining concentration gradient - air is exhaled and replaced with fresh inhaled air
- blood returns to heart to get pumped around the body
42
water use in plants
- keep cool
- photosynthesis and supports other chemical reactions
- keeps cells firm and supported
- transport minerals up
- it is absorbed through hypertonic root hairs
- then transported up the stem
- lost by transpiration from leaves
43
root hairs
- long very thin
- increase SA;vol ratio
- hypertonic so osmosis moves water into the roots
44
vascular bundle
xylem phloem and cambium
45
xylem
- carries water and minerals up from the roots
- via capillary action
- wide hollow pipes
46
phloem
- carries sucrose up and down from the leaves
- companion cells and sieve cells are living
- narrow
- water from the xylem moves into phloem via osmosis
47
cambium
- divides xylem and phloem
| - making stem thicker and stronger
48
transpiration
water evaporates from leaves while stomata are open for the exchange of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis
49
transpiration light intensity
- more light increase transpiration stimulates guard cells to take in water and open to allow CO2 to diffuse in for photosynthesis
50
temperature transpiration
- hotter increase diffusion and transpiration water evaporates quicker
51
humidity transpiration
high humidity reduces tranpsiration
- the surrounding air is dry diffusion of water is faster
- increasing diffusion gradient increases water loss
52
soil water transpiration
- wet soil increases transpiration
| - plants can't keep transpiring rapidly if water lost is not replaced
53
translocation
- transport of sugars and amino acids to all parts of the plant this is rapid and requires energy
- sucrose is actively pumped from photosynthetic cells into sieve cells
- energy for this is from companion cells
54
adhesion
water rises in the narrow vessels partly because water molecules are attached to the walls
55
cohesion
water moclules are attracted to each other and as water evaporates from the leaves columns of water are drawn up through the xylem
56
ring barking trees
- removal of a strip of bark from circumference of tree
- woody plants have vascular bundles in outer ring
- removes phloem
- sugars can't be carried down to roots
- roots die due to lack of energy from respiration
57
water moevement in plants
- water enters hypertonic root hairs by osmosis
- moves into xylem in the center of the root
- moves up xylem
- leaves xylem into leaf by moving into spongy layer by osmosis
- water evaporates into the spaces behind the stomata and diffuse into the air
58
leaf structure
```
cuticle
upper epidermis
palisades layer
spongy layer
lower epidermis
```
59
upper epidermis
layers of cells covered by waxy cuticle prevents water loss
60
palisade layer
contain chloroplast at top for maximum light absorption
61
spongy layer
provides a spot for gas exchange large spaces for air and water vapour
- includes xylem and phloem
62
stomata include advantages and disadvantages
- opening between 2 guard cells
- allow for gas exchange or water and carbon dioxide
open ad - allow CO2 in
open dis - loose water
closed ad - restores the water inside the leaf
closed dis - respiration and photosynthesis wouldn't occur
- stomata close when guard cells loose water
63
guard cells
open and close stomata control transpiration
64
xerophytes
live in desert where water is sacred and evaporation is rapid
65
leaf adaptation xerophytes
waxy cuticle - reduces evaporation water proof
small, shed leaves - store water, less SA for evaporation
sunken in stomata - keeps humid air in reduces diffusion
66
cell membrane
controls movement of materials into and out of the cell
67
membrane structure
- fluid mosaic model = double layer of phospholipids
| - includes proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids and cholesterol
68
proteins
- act as a carrier and receptor cites
- control the movement of specific molecules into and out of the cell
- include channel protein, carrier protein and receptor protein
69
glycoproteins
play an important role in cellular recognition and immune response
70
glycolipid
act as a receptor surface and stabilize the membrane
71
cholesterol
disturbs the close packing of the phospholipids and regulates membrane fluidity
72
channel protein
open - open all the time
closed - open and close under certain condition
- like a conveyer belt
73
receptor protein
lock and key model specific to certain substances
74
carrier protein
carries a molecule through the membrane protein changes shape
- suck in squeeze out mechanism
75
phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic head
| - hydrophobic tail (fatty acid)
76
photosynthesis
process of transforming sunlight energy into chemical energy
77
photosynthesis equation
carbon dioxide + water + energy -- glucose and oxygen gas
| glucose - C6H12O6
78
leaf adaptation for photosynthesis
large surface area - to absorb light
thin - so gasses don't have far to diffuse
contain chlorophyl - to trap light
network of veins - to transport water and sugars
have stomate - allow gases to diffuse in and out
79
chloroplast and structure
```
contain dan and ribosomes
- intermembrane
- stroma - liquid interior
granum - stacks of thylakoid membranes containing chlorophyll
- thylakoid
```
80
2 phases of photosynthesis
1. light dependent - occurs in the thylakoid membrane splits water into hydrogen and oxygen ions
2. light independent stage - occurs in the stroma takes in co2 and combines with hydrogen ions creates sugar
81
light photosynthesis
as light increases photosynthesis increase until it hits a flat line
- chlorophyll is working as fast as possible and can't work any faster
- it can only absorb a certain amount of light at one time
82
carbon dioxide photosynthesis
rate of photosynthesis increases as carbon dioxide concentration increase
- reactant
83
temperature photosynthesis
increasing temperature increases photosynthetic rate because of its effect on enzyme activity
- temperature exceeding optimum with eventually decrease photosynthetic rate
84
diffusion
- movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration
- doesn't require energy (passive)
- takes place until concentration reaches equilibrium
- further away from the source the lower the concentration
85
factors affecting rate of diffusion
concentration difference
surface area
membrane thickness
particle size - smaller particles diffuse faster
temperature - increase in temp causes faster diffusion rate as they have a higher kinetic energy
86
surface area to volume ratio
- ratio to cells surface area in relation to its volume
- maximizing surfacea rea to volume ratio is important so transport systems can run efficiently in cells
- large surface area can absorb things faster
87
osmosis
the movement of water molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration across a semi permeable membrane
88
osmotic pressure
the pressure created by water moving across a membrane
| the more water the higher osmotic pressure
89
hypotonic solution
- low solvent outside the cells
- water moves inwards
- the cell enlarges
90
isotonic solution
- same concentration
- numbers going in and out are equal
- cell stays the same
91
hypertonic solution
- high solvent outside the cell
- water moves outwards
- the cell shrinks
92
solute
dissolvable substance
93
solvent
substance that dissolves solute
94
solution
solvent and solute mixed together
95
osmosis in animals unicellular
- are able to remove excess water by forming pools in cytoplasmic organelles
- when they stretch to a certain point they contract and expel the water
96
osmosis in animals multicellular
- cells are bathed in isotonic fluid
- function effectively because water diffuses in both directions
- solute concentration is controlled by the concentration of solutes in blood plasma
97
osmosis in animal
shape is designed to maximize their surface area
98
osmosis in plants
- plant cell vacuoles contain cell sap that is rich in solute
- cell placed in solution whose solute is higher then the sap, full plasmolysis shrink
- cell placed in solution whose solute concentration is lower then then sap, full turgor big
99
respiration
series of chemical reactions that involve a reaction between glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water and energy
- needed to grow reproduce move and carry out fundamental maintenance and repairs
100
enzymes
catalyst that speed up biological reactions which are not consumed
- only complete specific jobs
- reusable
- reduces the activation energy of reactions (amount of energy required to get the reaction started)
101
anabolic
joins 2 or more substrate molecules together
102
catabolic
break a molecule into smaller parts
103
lock and key model
1. substrate is drawn into the active site of the enzyme
2. substrate shape must be compatible with the active site in order to react
3. enzyme modifies the substrate breaking down or joining together
- very specific to substrate
- enzyme has a fixed shape
104
induced fit model
1. 2 substrate molecules are drawn into the active site
2. the enzyme changes shape forcing the substrate molecules to combine
3. the resulting end product is released by the enzyme which returns to its normal shape
- substrate and active site aren't the same shape
105
temperature enzymes
enzyme activity increases with temperature due to increased particle speed = increased collision with enzymes and substrates
- if too hot enzymes denatures loosing its 3D shape therefore substrate won't fit
106
substrate concentration
- increase in concentration means there are more substrates present
- low concentration = not all enzymes are taken up
- high concentration = all enzymes being used
- all servers taken up
- rate of reaction increases then reaches a flat line
107
cofactors
- permanently or temporarily attaches to enzyme to change shape
- helps to form active site
108
competitive inhibitors
- mimic true substance and fit into active site
- fits into active site but doesn't do anything
- blocks the enzyme
109
non competitive inhibitors
- doesn't land in the active site but attaches to the enzyme and changes the shaoe
- substrate is unable to fit into the active site
- preventing function
110
carbohydrates
carbon hydrogen and oxygen
111
carbs function
- break down sugars
- quick energy and energy storage
- structural elements in cells
112
carbs monomer
monosaccharides
113
carbs example
monosaccharides - simple sugars e.g. glucose and fructose
disaccharides - 2 likes mono, sucrose
polysaccarides - many sugar molecules, glycogen
114
carbs structure
chains of glucose monomers joined
115
proteins
carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen and sulfur
116
proteins function
- cantor chemical reactions
- transport
- build, maintain and replace body tissue
117
protein monomer
amino acids 20
118
protein example
enzyme reactions
| membrane structure
119
protein structure
- long necklaces with different shaped beads
- each bead is a small amino acid
- joined together make thousands of proteins
120
lipids
carbon hydrogen and oxygen
121
lipids function
- store energy
- water proofing
- shock absorber
- insulation
- protect organs
122
lipids monomers
fatty acids, glycerol
123
lipids example
oils and fats
124
lipids structure
3 fat acid tails attached to a glycerol
| - triglyceride
125
lipids found in
butter meat cheese oil
126
nucleic acid
carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen sulfur and phosphorus
127
NA function
store genetic code
128
NA monomer
nucleotide
129
NA examples
DNA, RNA
130
NA structure
made of nucleotides
| - phosphate, base and deoxyribose sugar
131
prokaryotic cell
- pili
- capsule
- cell wall
- cell membrane
- cytoplasm
- chromosome DNA (big, middle)
- plasmid DNA (small)
- ribosomes
132
ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
133
cytoplasm
fluid material where activities of the cell occur
134
plasmid dna
small pieces of dna, able to replicate independently
135
plasma membrane
- selectively allows some substances to pass through it
136
cell comparison
```
P
- small
- unicellular
- don't have nucleus
- lack internal membrane
- circular dna
E
- large
- multicellular
- have membrane and nucleus
- dna linear chromosome
```
137
passive transport
- movement of molecules without needing energy
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- osmosis
- high to low
138
3 types of diffusion
- through lipid bilayer
- through channel
- facilitated
139
diffusion through lipid bilayer
allow free passage of some molecules
140
diffusion through channel
- molecules transported through central core
| - channel protein
141
facilitated diffusion
molecule attaches to protein
- membrane will change shape to transport molecule
- carrier protein
142
active transport
move substances abasing concentration gradient
- low to high
- requires energy
143
vesicular transport
- moves substance across membrane in vesicles
- needs energy to form vesicles
- endocytosis, exocytosis
144
endocytosis
- into the cell
- membrane folds around a particle (completely enclosed)
- vesicle suspends into the cells cytoplasm
- pinocytosis - taking in liquids
- phagocytosis - taking in solids
145
exocytosis
- out of the cell
- vesicle formed inside migrates to cell membrane and fuses
- contents of vesicle them pushes out
146
eukaryotic cells
animal cell - alot of space open round
| plant cell - packed long oval shape
147
animal cell structure
- vacuole
- golgi apparatus
- mitochondrion
- ribosomes
- nucleus
- nucleolus
- membrane
- cytoplasm
- endoplasmic reticulum
148
endoplasmic reticulum
intracellular and intercellular transport
149
nucleolus
involved in the manufacture of proteins within the cell
150
nucleus
coordinates all cells activity
151
mitochondrion
site of cellular respiration
152
golgi apparatus
system of membrane that packages and stores substances before their release
153
vacuole
storage sac
154
cell wall
provides extra support and protection
155
large permanent vacuole
fluid filled space that stores material
156
chloroplast
site of photosynthesis
157
plant cell structure
- cell wall
- membrane
- nucleus
- nucleolus
- chloroplast
- large permanent vacuole
- cytoplasm
- mitochondrion
158
determining between animal and plant cell
- does it have a cell wall and membrane or just membrane
| - does it have a large permanent vacuole
159
microscope parts
- eyepeice ocular
- arm
- nose piece
- objective lens
- stage
- stage clips
- course adjustment knob
- fine adjustment knob
- lamb
- base
- condenser lens
160
FOV calculations
if total magnification is multiplied by 10 fov needs to be divided by 10
- do the opposite from total magnification
161
mm - um
x 1000
162
why are enzymes vital for all living things
- biological reactions doesn't occur quickly
- not enough energy therefore no life
- keep alive and perform reactions within our bodies
163
all plant cells cantina these at some stage
nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
164
letter under microscope
flipped upside down
| then to the right or to the side
165
carbs and fats differ
in the ratio of elements present
166
um
micrometres
167
um - mm
divided by 1000
168
aerobic respiration process site
cytoplasm and mitochondria
169
aerobic respiration products produced in yeast
CO2 and H20
170
aerobic respiration produced in animals
CO2 and H20
171
aerobic respiration ATP produced
36
172
anaerobic respiration process site
cytoplasm
173
anaerobic respiration products in yeast
ethanol CO2
174
anaerobic respiration products in animals
2 lactic acid molecules
175
anaerobic respiration ATP produced
2
176
organism which alcoholic fermentation occurs
bacteria
177
aerobic respiration
requires oxygen
glucose + oxygen - carbon dioxide + water + ATP
- glycolysis and citric acid cycle
178
glycolysis
glucose - 2 ATP and pyruvate
- occurs in the cytoplasm
- in animals pyruvate is covered to lactic acid
- in plants pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2
179
citric acid cycle
pyruvate + 6O2 -- 6CO2 + 6H2O
goes to carbon dioxide and water and ATP
- occurs in the mitochondria
- 2 ATP produced
180
anaerobic respiration
- doesn't require oxygen
- lactic acid fermentation
glucose - lactic acid + ATP
- occurs in the cytoplasm
- glyolcysis
181
yeast
alcohol
182
ATP
- energy carrier for cells
- small
- rechargeable
- reusable
- releases energy to drive chemical reactions
- energy is used to ATP synthesis
183
counter current exchange
- where the water from the ocean flows oppositely to the blood in the vessels
- both start with high concentration then decrease to low concentration
- fish needs to constantly move in order to maintain concentration gradient
184
concurrent exchange
water in the environment move in the same direction as the blood
- going from high to low concentration
185
organic nutrients
carbs
proteins
lipids
NA
186
enzyme function
- both models enzymes are unaffected and reused in other reactions
- enzyme function is carried out under specific conditions that relate to the specific functions of each species
- enzyme function will be reduced or stoped it conditions more out of optimum range
- factors affecting include temp, ph, substrate concentration etc
187
electron transport chain
- occurs in mitochonria
- pyruvate + 6O2 - 6CO2 + 6H20
34 ATP
