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AP Psychology > Exam #6 Terms (Memory, Thinking, and Language) > Flashcards

Exam #6 Terms (Memory, Thinking, and Language) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

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2
Q

What is recall?

A

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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3
Q

What is recognition?

A

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

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4
Q

What is relearning?

A

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

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5
Q

What is encoding?

A

The process of getting information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning.

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6
Q

What is storage?

A

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

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7
Q

What is retrieval?

A

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

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8
Q

What is parallel processing?

A

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many fucntions.

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9
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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10
Q

What is short-term memory?

A

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

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11
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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12
Q

What is working memory?

A

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

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13
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.

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14
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds.

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15
Q

What is chunking?

A

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

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16
Q

What are mnemonics?

A

Memory aids, especially the techniques that use vivid images and organizational devices.

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17
Q

What is the spacing effect?

A

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

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18
Q

What is the testing effect?

A

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

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19
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems.

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20
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Explicit memory of experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems.

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21
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

A neutral center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage.

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22
Q

What is memory consolidation?

A

The neural storage of a long-term memory.

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23
Q

What is priming?

A

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

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24
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

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25
Q

What is mood-congruent memory?

A

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

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26
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list.

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27
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

An inability to form new memories.

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28
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

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29
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

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30
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

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31
Q

What is repression?

A

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

32
Q

What is reconsolidation?

A

A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

33
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

Occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event.

34
Q

What is source amnesia?

A

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

35
Q

What is déjà vu?

A

The eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

36
Q

What is cognition?

A

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

37
Q

What is a concept?

A

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

38
Q

What is a prototype?

A

A mental image or best example of a category.

39
Q

What is creativity?

A

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

40
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

41
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

42
Q

What is an algorithm?

A

A methodical, logical, rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone- use of heuristics.

43
Q

What are heuristics?

A

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.

44
Q

What is an insight?

A

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

45
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

46
Q

What is fixation?

A

In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.

47
Q

What is a mental set?

A

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

48
Q

What is intuition?

A

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

49
Q

What is representativeness heuristic?

A

Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

50
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

51
Q

What is overconfidence?

A

The tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

52
Q

What is framing?

A

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

53
Q

What is language?

A

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

54
Q

What is a phoneme?

A

In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

55
Q

What is a morpheme?

A

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

56
Q

What is grammar?

A

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

57
Q

What is the babbling stage?

A

Beginning around four months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

58
Q

What is the one-word stage?

A

The stage in speech development, from about age one to two, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

59
Q

What is the two-word stage?

A

Beginning about age two, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

60
Q

What is telegraphic speech?

A

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-“go car”- using mostly nouns and verbs.

61
Q

What is aphasia?

A

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either Broca’s area (impairing spekaing) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).

62
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

Helps control language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

63
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

A brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

64
Q

What is linguistic determinism?

A

The strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis-that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us.

65
Q

What is linguistic influence?

A

The weaker form of “linguistic relativity”-the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural language).

66
Q

What is absentmindedness?

A

Inattention to details leads to encoding failure.

67
Q

What is transcience?

A

Storage decay over time.

68
Q

What is blocking?

A

Inaccessibility of stored information.

69
Q

What is misattribution?

A

Confusing the source of information.

70
Q

What is suggestibility?

A

Lingering effects of misinformation.

71
Q

What is bias?

A

Belief colored recollection.

72
Q

What is persistence?

A

Unwanted memories.

73
Q

What is a flashbulb memory?

A

A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

74
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

75
Q

What is shallow processing?

A

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

76
Q

What is deep processing?

A

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

AP Psychology (8 decks)

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