Exam #4 Terms (Sensation and Perception/Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind) Flashcards
What is sensation?
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
What are sensory receptors?
Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
What is perception?
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
What is bottom-up processing?
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.
What is top-down processing?
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions by drawing on our experience and expectation.
What is selective attention?
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
What is inattentional blindness?
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
What is change blindness?
Failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
What is transduction?
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
What is psychophysics?
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
What is the absolute threshold?
The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time.
What is signal detection theory?
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
What does subliminal mean?
Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
What is the difference threshold?
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection fifty percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).
What is priming?
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.
What is Weber’s law?
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). Light must differ by 8%, weight by 2%, and tone by 3%.
What is a perceptual set?
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
What is extrasensory perception (ESP)?
The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, including telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
What is parapsychology?
The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.
What is wavelength?
The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
High frequency…
Low frequency…
…short wavelength (bluish colors)
…long wavelength (reddish colors)
Great amplitude…
Small amplitude…
…bright colors
…dull colors
What is hue?
The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
What is intensity?
The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).
What is the cornea?
The eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.
What is the pupil?
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
What is the iris?
A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
What is the lens?
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
What is the retina?
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
What is accomodation?
The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus on near or far objects on the retina.
What are rods?
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.
What are cones?
Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
What is the optic nerve?
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
What is a blind spot?
The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.
What is the fovea?
The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.
What is the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory?
The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
What is the opponent-process theory?
The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision.
What are feature detectors?
Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
What is parallel processing?
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
What is a gestalt?
An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
What is the figure-ground?
The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
What is grouping?
The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
What is depth-perception?
The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
What is the visual cliff?
A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
What is a binocular cue?
A depth cue, such as retinal disparity, the depends on the use of two eyes.
What is retinal disparity?
A binocolar cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance (stereoscopic vision).
What is a monocular cue?
A depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
What is perceptual constancy?
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.
What is color constancy?
Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.
What is perceptual adaptation?
The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.
What is audition?
The sense or act of hearing.
What is frequency?
The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.
What is pitch?
A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
What is the middle ear?
The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
What is the cochlea?
A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.
What is the inner ear?
The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
What is sensorimotor hearing loss?
Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness.
What is conduction hearing loss?
A less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
What is a cochlear implant?
A device for converting sounds into electrical signals that stimulates the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
What is the place theory?
In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
What is the frequency/temporal theory?
In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
What is the gate-control theory?
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activation in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
What is olfaction?
The sense of smell.
What is kinesthesia?
Our movement sense-our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.
What is vestibular sense?
Our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.
What is sensory interaction?
The principle that one sense may influence another.
What is embodied cognition?
The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements.
What is sleep?
A periodic, natural loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.
What is our circadian rhythm?
Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
What is REM sleep?
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.
What are alpha waves?
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
What is NREM sleep?
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
What are hallucinations?
False sensory experiences in the absence of a stimulus.
What are hypnagogic sensations?
Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep.
What are delta waves?
The large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM 3.
What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm.
What is insomnia?
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
What is narcolepsy?
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
What is sleep apnea?
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
What are night terrors?
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
When do sleepwalking and sleeptalking occur?
Sleepwalking only occurs during NREM-3 sleep, while sleeptalking can occur in any stage.
What is a dream?
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
What is manifest content?
According to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream.
What is latent content?
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream.
What is Freud’s wish-fulfillment dream theory?
Dreams preserve sleep and provide a “psychic safety valve”-expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings.
What is the information-processing dream theory?
Dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories.
What is the physiological function dream theory?
Regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways.
What is the activation-synthesis dream theory?
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.
What is the cognitive development dream theory?
Dream content reflects dreamers’ level of cognitive development-their knowledge and understanding.
What is REM rebound?
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
What is a psychoactive drug?
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
What is a substance use disorder?
A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk (from physical and/or psychological dependence).
What is tolerance?
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug.
What is withdrawal?
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.
What are depressants?
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body fuctions.
What is alcohol use disorder?
Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use (depressant).
What are barbiturates?
Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement.
What are opiates?
Opium and its derivatives; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
What are stimulants?
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
What is nicotine?
A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco (stimulant).
What is cocaine?
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria (stimulant).
What are amphetamines?
Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
What is methamphetamine?
A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baselines dopamine levels (stimulant).
What is Ectasy (MDMA)?
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition (stimulant/mild hallucinogen).
What are hallucinogens?
Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
What is a near-death experience?
An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death.
What is LSD?
A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (hallucinogen).
What is THC?
The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations (mild hallucinogen).
What is heroin?
A drug characterized by a rush of euphoria and relief from pain, with an agonizing withdrawal (depressant).
What is caffeine?
A drug characterized by increased alertness and wakefulness, with an uncomfortable withdrawal (stimulant).
What is touch?
A mix of four distinct senses: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.
What is relative size?
If two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image to be farther away.
What is interposition?
Objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be
perceived as closer.
What is relative height?
We perceive objects that are higher in our field of vision to be farther away than those that are lower.
What is relative motion?
Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in
opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction.
What is linear perspective?
Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to
converge in the distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
How do we perceive light and shadow?
Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than
more distant objects. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one appears to be farther away.
What occurs in NREM-1?
The brain produces theta waves (lasts 5-10 minutes).
What occurs in NREM-2?
Transition period between light and heavy sleep; the brain produces sleep spindles, body temperature decreases, and heart rate slows. Delta waves begin forming (lasts 20 minutes).
What occurs in NREM-3?
Commonly referred to as delta sleep; abnormal nocturnal activities occur toward the end of this stage (lasts 30 minutes).
What are the four theories of sleep function?
Sleep protects, helps us recover, helps us remember, and plays an important role in the growth process.
