EXAM Flashcards
Microevolution
Change in gene frequencies and phenotypic traits within a population and species
Macro evolution
Large scale evolutionary changes including the formation of new species and taxa
Convergent evolution
The evolution of similar traits in distantly related species
Divergent evolution
The large scale evolution of a group into many different species
Malthus evolution theory
Human populations grow exponentially but food sources grow at a constant rate
Lyell evolution
Earth had undergone and continues to undergo slow steady and gradual change
Lamarck evolution
Environment plays a key role in the evolution of species. Then theory of inheritance of acquired traits
Erasmus Darwin
Great grandpa. Proposed all life may have a single source
Charles Darwin
Natural selection
De Buffon
Similar organisms have a common ancestor
Living fossils
Species that lived millions of years ago but are still alive today with little or no changes.
Living fossil example
Alligator snapping turtle bowfin fish
Adaptive radiation
Relatively rapid evolution of a single species into many new species to fill a variety of new niches
Adaptive radiation example
Darwinian finches in the Galápagos Islands. 1 species evolved to fill 13 new niches
Gene pool
The complete set of alleles contained within a single population
Genetic drift
Changes to allele frequency as a result of chance
Founder effect
Genetic drift that results when a small number of individuals separate from there original population and form a new one.
Bottleneck effect
Dramatic often temporary reduction in population size resulting in a large genetic drift
Homologous structure
Similar structures in species that share a common ancestor
Analogous structure
Distantly related species develop structures that are anatomically different but serve the same function
Gradualism model type of change
Slow change over many generations
Punctuated model change
Long periods of no change with short periods of rapid change
Gradualism model what’s important
Natural selection
Punctuated model what’s important
Genetic drift and founder effect
Gradualism and living fossils
Make it hard to explain
Punctuated theory living fossils
Support the theory
Gradualism transitional forms
Lack of transitional forms don’t support the model
Punctuated and transitional forms
Supports This model bc there aren’t any
Geological Eras
Paleozoic Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Time and description Paleozoic
542-251 Mya age of ancient life
Time and description Mesozoic
Age of middle life 252-65.5 Mya
Time and description Cenozoic
Age of recent life 65.5 mya-present
Which periods were in the Paleozoic era?
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
Cambrian
542-488 mya. Known as Cambrian explosion
Ordovician
488-444
First predators, fish, vertebrates. She’ll bearing marine invertebrates. Armoured jawless fish. Ends with mass extinction #1
Silurian
Land plants appear. Arthropoda dominate land. Jawed and armoured fish dominate the sea. 444-416
Devonian
416-359. First amphibians insects trees and Chondrichthyes apear. Ozone layer spears. Ends with mass extinction #2
Carboniferous
359-299. Coniferous trees apear. Moist warm climates and coal deposits develop. Primitive reptiles apear
Permian
299-251. Conifer trees speciate. Reptiles radiate into pre Dino’s. Severe drought and glaciers. Ends with mass extinction #3 biggest one
Which periods are in the Mesozoic era?
Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
Triassic
251-199.6. Only 4 percent marine species survive. Early Dino’s appear. Ends with mass extinction number 4
Jurassic period
199.6-145.5. Pangea. Conifers and mammal like reptiles apear. Dino’s
Cretaceous
Angiosperms apear. Insects become pollinators. Birds and small reptiles. Reptiles rule land and sea ends with mass extinction number 5
Periods in Cenozoic era
Tertiary and quaternary
Tertiary
Adaptive radiation or birds and mammals. Angiosperms dominate. Arctic ice sheet and continental glaciation. 65.5-1.8
Quaternary
1.8-now. Land bridge between n and s America. Humans develop
Mass extinction #1
444mya. Ordovician - Silurian mass extinction
Mass extinction number 2
359 mya. Late Devonian mass extinction
Mass extinction number 3
Permian Triassic extinction. 251 Mya. Biggest ever extinction 96 percent marine species killed
Mass extinction number 4
Triassic Jurassic extinction. TJ. 199.6 Mya
Mass extinction number 5
Cretaceous tertiary mass extinction. Chixclub crater. KT. 65.5 Mya
Hardy Weinberg calculations
P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
P+q=1
P in hardy weinburg
Frequency of homozygous
Q in hardy Weinberg
Frequency of homozygous recessive gene
2pq in hardy Weinberg
Frequency of heterozygous gene
Evidence for evolution
Embryology biochemistry the fossil record geographic distribution and comparative anatomy
Embryology
Different species develop things at the exact same time as other species when they are in the womb
Biochemistry
Evidence in similarities in genes that it is all related
The fossil record
Shows the different layer of rocks in chronological order. The deeper in the rocks the older
Geographic distribution
Similar habitats select for certain similar adaptations even tho things develop very far away from eachother
Comparative anatomy
Similarities in structure among different species give clues to evolutionary history. Ex homologous feature and vestigial structure
Post zygotic and pre zygotic isolating mechanism
Prevents species from mating
Post zygotic mortality
Mating and feritilization happens but zygote doesn’t develop properly so does
Hybrid inviability
Dies before birth or very soon after
Hybrid infertility
Animal is born but is infertile
Prezygotic prevention of mating
Ecological isolation. Temporal isolation. Behavioural isolation
Ecological isolation
Similar species occupy different parts of a region so can’t mate
Temporal isolation
Different species bread at different times of year so can’t mate together
Behavioural isolation
Different species use different behaviours to mate and won’t respond to others
Prevention of fertilization
Mechanical isolation and gamer ic isolation
Mechanical isolation
Differences in mating features don’t allow them to be able to physically mate togwther
Genetic isolation
Things release egg or sperm but need certain chemical markers to mate
Haploid
Gametes contain one of each type of chromosome
Diploid
Somatic cells contain 2 of each type of chromosome
Homozygous
Identical alleles for one trust
Heterozygous
Have alleles that are unlike for the same gene
Genotype
Genetic make up of individual
Phenotype
Physical appearance of an organism resulting in the genetic make up
Dihybrid
Heterozygous for 2 different alleles
DNA pairs
Adenine and thymine
Cytosine and guanine
RNA pairs
Adenine and uracil
Cytosine and guanine
Crossing over
The exchange of chromosome segments between homologous pairs during synapsis. Helps with recombination of genetic info between non sister cheomatids
Mitosis
A eukaryotic cell divides it’s genetic info into 2 new identical nuclei
Meiosis
2 staged cell division where the daughter cells have half the number of chromosome as the parent which results in formation of gametes or spores
Non disjunction
The failure of homologous pairs to separate. Result is abnormal number of chromosome in daughter cells
Sample disorders non disjunction
Turners klinefelter sand downs
Turners
Monosomy so X. Result is underdeveloped female
Klinefelter a
XXY trisomy. Sterile abnormal male with some female features
Downs
Trisomy of #21. Low mental ability with short features
Sugars in DNA vs RNA
DNA - deoxyribose
RNA- ribose
Number or strands DNA vs RNA
2 in DNA. One in RNA
Location in cell DNA vs RNA
DNA is in nucleus mitochondria and chloroplast. RNA in nucleus and cytoplasm
Building block of DNA
Each chain is called a nucleotide and is made of a phosphate, pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base
Similarities of meiosis and mitosis
Diploid parent cell. Has interphase and pmat. In metaphase chromosomes line up and they both end with cytokenesis
Number of daughter cells in mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis only 2. Meiosis 4
Cell divisions in asexual reproduction
1 mitosis. 2 meiosis
Genetic make up in asexually reproduction
Mitosis identical daughter. Meiosis genetically different.
Process of blood clotting
Blood vessel injury
Platelets attracted to area
Platelets rupture and release chemicals to form thromboplastin.
Thromboplastin converts thrombin to prothrombin.
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
Fibrin forms a net that traps blood
Mouth
Teeth grind food PD. saliva breaks down carbs. CD
Esophogaus
Long muscular tube that moves food to stomach PD
Stomach
j shaped organ that churns food. PD. Mixes food with pepsin to digest protien. Cd
Liver
Biggest organ in body. Makes bike that emulsified fat. Cd. Breaks down toxins. Cd.
Gallbladder
Small organ on liver Connected to duodenum via bile duct. Stores bike part of cd
Pancreas
Small organ between stomach and duodenum. Creates and secretes trypsin. Cd. Secretes bicarbonate ions. Cd
Small intestine. Parts
7 m long includes duodenum jujunem and illium
Small intestine actions
Primary site of complete digestion. Cd. Diffuses thru villi to blood
Large intestine.
8 cm wide. Absorbs water. Cd. Digests food further with bacteria. Cd
Blood flow thru heart
Vena cava. R atrium. Try spud valve. R ventricle. Pulmonary valve. Pulmonary artery. Pulmonary vein. L atrium. Bicuspid valve. L ventricle. Aortic valve. Aorta
Product of digestion
Carbs lipids protiens
Amylase
Mouth and small intestine from pancreas. Breaks down starch
Pepsin
Stomach from stomach breaks down protiens
Bile
Bile small intestine from liver. Emulsified fat
Secretin
Liver and pancreas produced by small intestine. Tells liver to make more bile and pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
Lipases
Small intestine by pancreas. Breaks down days
Cck
Pancreas by small intestine. Signals release of pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate ions.
Bicarbonate ions
Small intestine by pancreas. Decreases ph
Trypsin
Small intestine from small intestine. Breaks down protiens
Carbs are broken down by
Amylase
Protiens are broken down by
Pepsin and trypsin
Lipids are broken down by
Bile and lipases
Structure small intestine
Lined with villi and microvilli to increase sa for digestion. Increases rate by 500 times.
Artery
Carries oxygenated blood away. 97% o2 content. Has thick muscular elastic wall with small lumen.
Capillaries
Connect arteries and veins. 1 cell thick lumen so gas exchange can occur here
Vein
To the heart with not a lot of oxygen content. Thin less muscular lumen with less elastic wall
Blood pressure
Systolic/diastolic. 120/80
Systolic pressure
Pressure in arteries when heart contracts
Diastolic pressure
Pressure in arteries when heart relaxes
Red blood cells
Make up 44% of blood. Bio concave discs. Carry oxygen erythrocytes
White blood cells
Leukocytes. Defend from infection. 1% of blood.
Types of leukocytes granulocytes
Have granules in cytoplasm to kill infection.
Ex. Neutrophil 3000-7000
Eosinophil 50-400
Basophils 0-50
Types of leukocytes agranulocytes
No granules so use phagocytosis to kill infections.
Ex. Monocytes 100-600
Lymphocyte 1000-3000
Non vascular
Lack transport tissue. Small and restricted to moist areas do not possess true roots stems or leaves
Vascular
Possess transport tissue
Possess true roots stems leaves and stomata
Non vascular examples
Liver roots mosses
Vascular examples
Club moss horsetail fern
Angiosperm
Seed in reproductive structure called a flower
Female reproductive organ develops into fruit
Pollination via wind or animals
Example lily rose oak birch
Gymnosperm
Lack enclosed chambers in which seed develop
Produce seeds in cones which are exposed to the environment
Example chad gingko conifer
Source
A plant cell with high concentration of sugars and other solutes such as leafy cell
Sink
A plant cell with low concentration of sugars
Sugars may be converted to a starch for storage or used rapidly for energy or as a building block of other carbs
Xerophyte
Plants that are able to live in dry environments
Have reduced leaves so reduce Sa for water loss
Deep roots to reach water deep in soil
Hydrophytes
Plants that live in water
Very little strengthening tissue water gives support
Auxin
Manufactured by cells undergoing repeated cell division
Growth hormone conc’n are high in meristematic cells
Basic tissue in plants
Dermal vascular and ground
Description dermal
Epidermis. Outermost layer of plant. Thick cell walls with waxy cuticle covering.
Role dermal
Protect agains injury and water loss
Description vascular
Xylem and phloem. Xylem have think walls while phloem has thin walls
Role vascular
Transport water and nutrient
Description ground
Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Ground tissue role
Perform cellular process store carbs and support the plant
Palisade mesophyl
Layer of elongated photosynthetic cells arranged in columns under the plant surface on the leaf. Where most photosynthesis occurs.
Spongy mesophyl
Layer of loosely packed photosynthetic cells with large air spaces between them. Which allows for a lot of gas exchange.
Transpiration
Evaporation of water through plant leaves
Blade
Flat part of leaf
Petiole
The stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem
Venation
Arrangement of leaves within a leaf.
Equation photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water –> glucose + oxygen
Vascular bundle arrangement monocot v divot
Random and then around perimeter
Cotyledons
1 monocot 2 in divot
Root type
Fibrous in monocot taproot in Dixie
Leaf vein pattern
Parallel in monocot. Branching in divot
Flower petals
Monocots 3s dicots 4s and 5s
Microscope view of leaves
Mono has less air holes and divot has palisade and spongy all very visible
Xylem
Water conducting tissue that start as living and end as dead. Made of tracheida and vessels
Tracheids
Long tapered cells with end plates for support in xylem.
Vessels
In xylem cells with greater diameter and helps the water be pulled up by transpiration
Phloem
Living tissue with a high rate of respiration to move sugar down the plant. Made of seive tubes and companion cells
Seive tubes
Narrow elongated cells in phloem connected end to end to transport sugars
Companion cells
Nourish the seive tubes
Tropic movements
Movement in response to and external stimulus in which the direction of the stimulus determines the direction of the response
Positive tropism
Growth towards the stimulus
Negative tropism
Growth away from the stimulus
Phototropism
When light affects the plant. Positive when grows towards it
Gravitotropism
Response to gravity. When roots grow down its positive. Plant grows up negative
Thigmotropism
Response to plants touch. Positive is towards it. Negative is away
What is the chemical composition of fertilizers
Sequence of 3 numbers on the package that give the composition of N-P2O5 - K2O
How do you find total nutrient content,
Add up all the percentage of each chemical to get the total
Karyotype
A picture of the organisms chromosomes showing number shape size and shape. They are seen during metaphase
Pedigree
Diagram of an individual’s ancestor used in human genetics to analyze the inheritance of a certain trait
Mutations
Change in nucleotide sequence of DNA happens in somatic or gametic cells
Deletion
Due to breakage part of the chromosomee is lost
Chromosome mutations
Deletion. Inversion. Translocation. Non disjunction. Duplication
Inversion
The chromosome breaks off and is flipped backwards
Trans locations
2 chromosomes that aren’t homologous trade parts
Duplication
Sequence is repeated
Gene mutations
Point and frame shift mutation
Point mutation
Insertion deletion or substitution of a gene in a nucleotide
Frame shift
Insert or delete one or more nucleotides so the protiens built incorrectly
Replication of DNA
1st step. Occurs during the s stage the one strand reproduces into 2.
When figuring out replication you have to
Flip the DNA to the opposite pair
Translocation
3rd step. Each letter from the mRNA is turned into a codon. Which turns it into the amino acid so it can actually become something.
Transcription
2nd step. Producing mRNA from the DNA. So you flip it again to the different nitrogenous bases
Mono hybrid cross
A cross designed to study the inheritance of only one trait
Dihybrid cross and ratio
A cross consisting of 2 genes each consisting of heterozygous alleles. The ratio is always 9:3:3:1
Sex linked cross
And allele that is found on one of the sex chromosomes of X or u and when passed onto the offspring is expressed
In a sex linked cross a male
Can’t be a carrier he can only posses it or not.
Codominance
Both alleles are expressed fully
Incomplete dominance
A situation where neither allele dominates over the other and both have an influence on the individual. So partial expression of both traits. So when red and white flower mix it goes pink
Type A blood
IAIA or IAi
Type B blood
IBIB or IBi
Type ab blood
IAIB
Type O blood
ii
Acquired active immunity
Antibody protection
Natural acquired active
From immune system fighting a disease
Artificial acquired
Vaccines are given and body produces antibodies
Acquired passive
No antibody protection
Natural acquired passive
Mothers antibodies diffuse to fetus so it doesn’t get sick
Artificial acquired
Antivenom is given to snake bite victim
Major steps in immune response
Invader identification stage. Cloning stage. Attack stage. Slow down memory stage
Invader identification stage
Histamine is released so area swells. Pus forms and macrophages create pathogen antigens on the surface
Cloning stage.
T helper cell binds then clones itself. T killer cells and B cells start to clone too
Attack stage
T killer cell attacks pathogens and stop replication. B cells make antibodies. Plasma makes antibodies
Slow down memory stage
T surpressor cells slow down immune response. Memory B cells produced so ready to attack anything if virus come back.
Structure circulatory system
Pumps blood from heart thru arteries to cells and back to heart they the veins
Function circulatory system
Drop off O2 and pick up Co2 so it can be expelled. Also get rid of waste in the blood so it can be filtered out and exit the body
Inhalation
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract so pressure decreases and air flows in.
Exhalation
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and pressure increases in lungs so air flows out.
Mechanics of breathing
Air flows form an area of high pressure to low pressure
Structure respiratory system.
Thin permeable respiratory membrane for diffusion. Large sa for gas exchange. Adequate blood supply. Breathing system to supply O2 rich air to respiratory system
Function respiratory system
Gas exchange. Bring O2 in and co2 out
Pathway of air
Mouth pharynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli
Mouth and nose
Air enters here and is warned and moistened
Pharynx
Air travels thru here Epiglottis has to remain open
Trachea
Semi rigid tube with cartilage rings to keep it sturdy. Has cilia on inside
Bronchi
Branches off into bronchioles. And end in alveoli
Alveoli
Surrounded by capillaries so gas exchange can easily occur.
Latin names
Genus and species. Species has to be lower case
Bison
Bison bison
Killer whale
Orcinus orca
Skunk
Mephitis mephitis
House mouse
Mud musculus
Cardinal
Cardinals cardinalis
DNA differences
P- info in nucleoid
E info in a true nucleus
Cell division
P- binary fission
E. Mitosis or meiosis
The 6 kingdoms
Archaebacteria. Eubacteria. Protists. Fungi. Plantae. Animalia
Archaebacteria
Unicellular. Live in harsh condition. Ex. Methanogens
Eubacteria
Different types of bacteria. Ex. E. coli
Protist
3 different types. Ex. Amoeba paramecium euglena
Phylum Chordata classes in them
Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia reptilia aves mammalia
Chondrichthyes
Cartilaginous fish
Osteichthyes
Not fish
Porifera
Sponges
Cnidaria
Stinging hairs. Like jellyfish
Phlatymenthes
Flat worms tapeworms
Nematoda
Round worms. I’m
Chordata
Humans dogs. Things wth backbones
Echinodermata
5 pointed creatur
Starfish
MOLUSCA
Second biggest phyla. Clams oysters 3 classes in it
Bivalvia
2 shells like a clam
Gastropoda
Slow moving with a shell
Cephalopoda
Octopus
Arthropoda
Largest phyla. Spiders. 5 classes
Arachnidas
8 legs
Crustacean
Crabs lobster
Insecta
3 part body
Diplopoda
2 pair jointed legs. Millipede
Chilopoda
Centipede
infections by protozoan
Malaria and ass (trypanosome)
Bacterial shapes
Cocci circle
Bacilli rod
Spirillum spring
Bacterial patterns
Diplo pairs
Staphylo cluster
Strepto chain
Plasmid
Small circular DNA rings sound in eubacteria
Viruses reproduce by
Receptor site on host cell
Capsid and tail finer protiens fit in perfectly
Injexts it’s DNA into host cell
Types of viruses
Polyhedral 20 sides. Polio virus
Spherical. AIDS
Cylindrical. Tobacco mosaic virus
Bacteriophage. T4 virus
Photoautotroph
Light for e source and co2 as carbon source
Type eubacteria
Photogeterotroph
Light as e source. Organic c like carbon and fats
Chemoautotrophs
E from breaking down inorganic molecules like h2s. Co2 is carbon source
Chemoheterotrophs
Use organic c like carbon as e and CN arbon source
Halophiles
Like high salt content environment
Thermoacidophiles
High ph and warm temperatures. Volcanoes or sea vents
Methanogens
Methane as waste product. Common in marshes
Protists
60000+ species. 3 groups of animalish plantish and fungi isn
Zygomycotes
Bread mould
Ascomycotes
Sac fungi
Basidiomycotes
Cap mushroom with gills. Mushroom and puff balls
Deuteromycotes
Imperfect fungi. Raquefort cheese
ATP
Substance that supplies energy for muscle contraction
Outer bonds in ATP release
12000 calories
Inner bond releases
3000 calories
When ATP is broken down it makes
Adp + Pi + energy
Cellular respiration equation
Glucose plus oxygen makes water plus carbon dioxide and 36 ATP
4 part process of ATP
Glycolysis transition reaction Krebs cycle then ETc
Glycolysis
Happens in cytoplasm glucose molecule splits in 2. Makes pyruvate
2 ATP
Transition reaction
Connects glycolysis to Krebs cycles
Krebs cycle
Occurs in matrix. Makes 4 co2 and 2 ATP
Electron transfer chain
Movement of electrons along a chain. 32 ATP produced
Bonds in biomolecules
Carbs alpha 1 4 glycosidic link
Fat Esther linkage
Protien peptide bond
Nucleic acids
Direct growth and development of an organism by a chemical code
Globular protiens
Make enzymes and antibodies
Fibrous protiens
Keratin in hair and tendons
Conjugated protien
Has a non protien group attached to it
Primary protien structure
Exact linear sequence of amino acids
Secondary protien structure
How protein interacts weigh ours. So alpha helix which is a pigtail or a beta pleated sheet which is accordion
Tertiary protien structure
Depends on secondary structure. Fold into 3D and makes pockets
Quaternary protein structure
2 or more chains text together
How many amino acids does our body need
20 and 11 are produced by body
4 groups in amino acid
NH2 H COOH And an R group which changes
H protien group
Glycerine
Ch3 protien group
Alanine
Job of protiens
Structural enzymes transport and hormone messengers
Saturated fat
Only single bonds are solid at room temp
Unsaturated fat
Double bonds exist. Liquid at room temp.
All fats have glycerol in them
Which is a 3 carbon alcohol
(Ch2)14ch3 makes
Palmitic acid
(Ch2)16ch3
Stearin acid
Biological function of lipids
Long term nutrient and e source Insulation to conserve energy Cushioning for organs Hormones to send messages Structural component of cell membrane
Polysaccharide
Complex carb consisting of many simple sugars linked together b
Ex. Polysaccharide
Starch and cellulose in plants. Glycinogen
Glucose + glucose
Maltose
Glucose + fructose
Sucrose
Glucose + galactose
Lactose
Disaccharide
Double sugar made up of 2 simple sugars bonded together
Carbs type of energy
Provide short or long term energy source
Diffusion
Passive transport. Movement of substance from high concentration to low concentration
Osmosis
Passive. Movement of water from high concentration to low consent ration
Active transport in plants
Moves across a concentration gradient and carrier protiens help this happen
Endosytosis
Cell transports molecules into the cell by unsung energy
Exocytosis
Cell uses energy to make molecule leave the cell
Pinocytosis
When cell eats a liquid particle
Phagocytosis
When cell eats a solid particle
Sodium potassium pump
Active transport 3 sodium a pumped in cell while 2 potassium a pumped out.
Hypertonic.
Solute concentration out of cell higher. So water moves ou and cell shrinks
Hypotonic
Solute out of cell is lower than solute in so water goes in and cell expands
Peripheral proteins
Receptor site for enzymes and hormone and don’t go all the way thru
Integral protiens
allow things to travel from out of cell into cell
Membrane protiens are used for
Transport channels. Enzyme receptors. Hormone receptors. Cell identity markers. Attachment of cytoskeleton. Cell adhesion
