Exam 5 Flashcards
Describe the circulatory system of a fish?
Single circuit with two main chambers, atrium and ventricle, and an enlarged sinus venosus located above the atrium
What is the purpose of the sinus venosus in fish?
It collects blood to smooth delivery to the heart
Describe the circulatory system in terrestrial vertebrates.
Double circuit with a high pressure system that supplies oxygenated blood to capillary beds and a pulmonary circuit to serve the lungs
Describe amphibian hearts
Right antrium for deoxygenated blood and left atrium for oxygenated blood but a single ventricle with a spiral fold and also differential blood pressure to reduce mixing
Which vertebrates have nearly separate ventricles?
nonavian reptiles
Which vertebrates have completely separate ventricles?
crocodilians. birds and mammals
contraction of the heart
systole
relaxation of the heart
diastole
site of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid
capillaries
network of tubes that insects and some other arthropods use to exchange gasses
tracheal system
minimizes gas exchange by moving water and blood in opposite directions
countercurrent flow
What are the respiratory pigments that many vertebrates and invertebrates use to transport oxygen?
hemoglobin, hemocyanin, hemerythrin, and chlorocruorin
internal salt concentration=external environment
isosmotic
internal salt concentration
hypoosmotic
internal salt concentration> external environment
hyperosmotic
organisms that maintain the osmolarity of the body fluids equal to the surrounding seawater
osmoconformers
expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic environment
osmoregulators
animals that must live within a narrow salinity range
stenohaline
organisms that tolerate wide variations
euryhaline
maintains body fluids in higher concentration than the surrounding water
hyperosmotic regulator
epithelial cells specialized for moving solutes in specific directions
transport epithelia
What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia and why?
most aquatic animals because it requires a lot of water. lowest energy use
What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as urea and why?
Mammals, most amphibians, and sharks because it requires less water to excrete. Medium/high energy use.
What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid?
Many reptiles (including birds), insects, and land snails because it doesn’t dissolve in water and can be secreted with little water loss. Highest energy use
Any tubule specialized for excretion and/or osmoregulation
Nephridium
highly branched duct system to all parts of the body, most common design to maintain osmotic balance
flame cells
Open system found in molluscs and annelids
metanephridium
tubule is open at both ends in metanephridium
nepric tubule
fluid is swept into the tubule through a ciliated funnel-like opening
nephrestome
point where waste solutes are excreted in metanephridium
nepridipore
Describe antennal glands
- ) located in the ventral part of the head
- ) An elaboration of basic nephridia
- ) Lack open nephrostomes
- ) Hydrostatic pressure of the blood forms a protein-free filtrate in the end sac
- ) In tubular portion, certain salts are selectively reabsorbed or actively secreted
- ) Similar to the vertebrate system in sequence of urine formation
Thin, elastic blind tubules
malphighian tubules
How do malphighian tubules work?
- Urine production is initiated by acive transport of hydrogen ions into the tubule lumen
- Osmotic pressure draws water, solutes, and nitrogenous wastes out of the hemolymph and into the tubule
- Urine drains into the retum, where water and salts may be reabsorbed by specialized rectal glands
- Leaves behind uric acid, excess water, salts, and other wastes
- Especially effiecent system for dry environments
the earliest vertebrate kidney with segmentally arranged tubules
archinephros
What are the three stages vertebrate kidneys go through?
- Pronephros
- Mesonephros–>Opisthonephros
- Mesonephros–>Metanephros
Kidney stage in vertebrate embryos
pronephros
Replace the pronephros and form adult kidney of most fishes and amphibians
mesonephros–>opsthonephros
Kidney stage in adult amniotes. Much larger and compact, large number of nephric tubules, archinephric duct has shifted to sperm transport, and has a ureter
mesonephros–>metanephros
functional unit of the vertebrate kidney; long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus
nephron
What are the two types of nephrons in mammals and birds?
cortical and juxtamedullary
85% of nephrons in humans that reach only a short distance into the medulla
cortical nephron
Extend deep into the medulla and allow for hyperosmotic urine
juxtamedullary nephron
primary site of reabsorption
- proximal convoluted tubule
reabsorption of water continues, aquaporins allow water to exit, and there are almost no channels for salt an other small soultes
- descending loop of Henle
Channels allow salt to diffuse out, but there are few aquaporins
- Ascending loop of Henle
Helps regulate the K+ and NaCl concentration of body fluids
- Distal tubule
Carries filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis and reabsorbs NaCl
- Collecting duct
Mechanism of defense that does not depend on prior exposure
innate immunity
Specific defense against particular non-self material
Acquired immunity
Resistance is not complete and a host may recover, but harbor some parasites
Premunition
Leukocytes with lobed nuclei and specific granules in cytoplasm
Granulocytes
Most abundant granulocyte that is the first phagocyte to enter site of inflammation in order to catalyze production of reactive oxygen intermediates
Neutrophils
Granulocytes that phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes and provide protection from parasitic worms
Eosinophils
Granulocytes that release substances that affect surrounding cells
Basophils
Contain no specific granules in cytoplasm
Agranulocytes
Agranulocyte that are generally divided into big and small types
Lymphocytes
What do big lymphocytes do?
- natural killer cells that kill virus-infected and tumor cells in the absence of antibody
- triggers cell apoptosis
What do small lymphocytes do?
T cells and B cells are involved in acquired immunity in “vertebrates”
Agranulocytes that can move quickly to infection sites to divide/differentiate to replenish macrophages/dendritic cells
Monocytes
What are the two ways vertebrate cells can take care of nonself particles?
specialized cells can engulf or encapsulate them
tissue used from another individual of the same species
allograft
tissue used from an individual of a different species
xenograft
What happened to invertebrates when given an allograft?
Their bodies reject allografts, and they can reject them faster with a second transplant
Any molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking an antigen for an immune response or marking dead cells for recycling
opsonin
Small proteins involved in cell signaling that act on cells that produce them, nearby cells, and on distant cells
cytokines
What function do cytokines have in invertebrates?
- rapid production of coelomocytes
- chemotaxis of coelomocytes
- stimulation of phagocytosis
What function do cytokines have in vertebrates?
- rapid production of T cells
- chemotaxis of macrophages
Foreign molecules specifically recognized by lymphocytes
Antigens
Secreted proteins that are dissolved in blood or tissue fluid and combine with the antigens that stimulated their production
Antibody
Portion of an antigen to which an antibody or T cell receptor binds
Epitope
Hormones that are secreted into extracellular fluids by endocrine cells; reach their targets via the bloodstream
Endocrine
Targets lie near secreting cells
Paracrine
Target cell is the secreting cell
Autocrine
Neurons secrete neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on target cells
Synaptic
Specialized neurons secrete neurohormones that travel to target cells via the bloodstream
Neuroendocrine
Convey information via the bloodstream to target cells throughout the body
Hormones
Chemical signals that carry information from one individual to another member of the same species
Pheromones
Signals that travel from one animal to some member of a different species
Allelochemicals
Allelochemical that benefits the sender
Allomones
Allelochemical that benefits the receiver
Kairomones
Allelochemical that benefits both the sender and the receiver
Synomones
What two ways do hormones work through?
membrane-bound receptors and nuclear receptors
How do hormones that use a membrane-bound receptor work?
Hormones that are too large or too polar to pass through a plasma membrane require the use of a signal transduction pathway
How do hormones that use nuclear receptor work?
A hormone enters the cell and binds with a receptor, a hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus, and things get to work
What influences most hormonal activities?
Pituitary gland
What regulates the pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
Where are topic and non-tropic hormones produced?
Anterior lobe
Regulate other endocrine glands and often involve hormone cascade pathways
Tropic hormones
Directly stimulate target cells to induce effects
Non-tropic hormones
What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin
Regulates the kidney’s retention of water
Antidiuretic hormone
Initiates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk release in mothers
Oxytocin
Located in the brain of most vertebrates derived from a light sensitive structure
pineal gland
What roles does the thyroid gland have?
Thyroid hormones play crucial roles in stimulating metabolism and influencing development and maturation
What does the adrenal gland produce?
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and aldosterone
What do epinephrine and norepinephrine do?
Accelerate heartbeat, increase blood pressure, raise blood sugar levels, and increase blood flow to heart and lungs
Reduces inflammation and stimulates carbohydrate metabolism
cortisol
acts in the kidney to promote the uptake of sodium and other salts from the urine
aldosterone
What two functions does the pancreas have?
Secretes digestive enzymes into the digestive tract and produces insulin and glucagon
Involves the activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in the production of secreted antibodies
Humoral immune response
Involves the Activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells
Cell-mediated immune response
Release cytokines and help modulate the response
Helper T cells
