Exam 5 Flashcards by Emma Showalter

Describe the circulatory system of a fish?

Single circuit with two main chambers, atrium and ventricle, and an enlarged sinus venosus located above the atrium

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What is the purpose of the sinus venosus in fish?

It collects blood to smooth delivery to the heart

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Describe the circulatory system in terrestrial vertebrates.

Double circuit with a high pressure system that supplies oxygenated blood to capillary beds and a pulmonary circuit to serve the lungs

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Describe amphibian hearts

Right antrium for deoxygenated blood and left atrium for oxygenated blood but a single ventricle with a spiral fold and also differential blood pressure to reduce mixing

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Which vertebrates have nearly separate ventricles?

nonavian reptiles

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Which vertebrates have completely separate ventricles?

crocodilians. birds and mammals

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contraction of the heart

systole

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relaxation of the heart

diastole

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site of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid

capillaries

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network of tubes that insects and some other arthropods use to exchange gasses

tracheal system

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minimizes gas exchange by moving water and blood in opposite directions

countercurrent flow

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What are the respiratory pigments that many vertebrates and invertebrates use to transport oxygen?

hemoglobin, hemocyanin, hemerythrin, and chlorocruorin

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internal salt concentration=external environment

isosmotic

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internal salt concentration

hypoosmotic

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internal salt concentration> external environment

hyperosmotic

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organisms that maintain the osmolarity of the body fluids equal to the surrounding seawater

osmoconformers

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expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic environment

osmoregulators

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animals that must live within a narrow salinity range

stenohaline

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organisms that tolerate wide variations

euryhaline

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maintains body fluids in higher concentration than the surrounding water

hyperosmotic regulator

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epithelial cells specialized for moving solutes in specific directions

transport epithelia

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What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia and why?

most aquatic animals because it requires a lot of water. lowest energy use

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What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as urea and why?

Mammals, most amphibians, and sharks because it requires less water to excrete. Medium/high energy use.

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What kind of animals excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid?

Many reptiles (including birds), insects, and land snails because it doesn’t dissolve in water and can be secreted with little water loss. Highest energy use

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Any tubule specialized for excretion and/or osmoregulation

Nephridium

highly branched duct system to all parts of the body, most common design to maintain osmotic balance

flame cells

Open system found in molluscs and annelids

metanephridium

tubule is open at both ends in metanephridium

nepric tubule

fluid is swept into the tubule through a ciliated funnel-like opening

nephrestome

point where waste solutes are excreted in metanephridium

nepridipore

Describe antennal glands

1. ) located in the ventral part of the head 2. ) An elaboration of basic nephridia 3. ) Lack open nephrostomes 4. ) Hydrostatic pressure of the blood forms a protein-free filtrate in the end sac 5. ) In tubular portion, certain salts are selectively reabsorbed or actively secreted 6. ) Similar to the vertebrate system in sequence of urine formation

Thin, elastic blind tubules

malphighian tubules

How do malphighian tubules work?

1. Urine production is initiated by acive transport of hydrogen ions into the tubule lumen 2. Osmotic pressure draws water, solutes, and nitrogenous wastes out of the hemolymph and into the tubule 3. Urine drains into the retum, where water and salts may be reabsorbed by specialized rectal glands 4. Leaves behind uric acid, excess water, salts, and other wastes 5. Especially effiecent system for dry environments

the earliest vertebrate kidney with segmentally arranged tubules

archinephros

What are the three stages vertebrate kidneys go through?

1. Pronephros 2. Mesonephros-->Opisthonephros 2. Mesonephros-->Metanephros

Kidney stage in vertebrate embryos

pronephros

Replace the pronephros and form adult kidney of most fishes and amphibians

mesonephros-->opsthonephros

Kidney stage in adult amniotes. Much larger and compact, large number of nephric tubules, archinephric duct has shifted to sperm transport, and has a ureter

mesonephros-->metanephros

functional unit of the vertebrate kidney; long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus

nephron

What are the two types of nephrons in mammals and birds?

cortical and juxtamedullary

85% of nephrons in humans that reach only a short distance into the medulla

cortical nephron

Extend deep into the medulla and allow for hyperosmotic urine

juxtamedullary nephron

primary site of reabsorption

1. proximal convoluted tubule

reabsorption of water continues, aquaporins allow water to exit, and there are almost no channels for salt an other small soultes

2. descending loop of Henle

Channels allow salt to diffuse out, but there are few aquaporins

3. Ascending loop of Henle

Helps regulate the K+ and NaCl concentration of body fluids

4. Distal tubule

Carries filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis and reabsorbs NaCl

5. Collecting duct

Mechanism of defense that does not depend on prior exposure

innate immunity

Specific defense against particular non-self material

Acquired immunity

Resistance is not complete and a host may recover, but harbor some parasites

Premunition

Leukocytes with lobed nuclei and specific granules in cytoplasm

Granulocytes

Most abundant granulocyte that is the first phagocyte to enter site of inflammation in order to catalyze production of reactive oxygen intermediates

Neutrophils

Granulocytes that phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes and provide protection from parasitic worms

Eosinophils

Granulocytes that release substances that affect surrounding cells

Basophils

Contain no specific granules in cytoplasm

Agranulocytes

Agranulocyte that are generally divided into big and small types

Lymphocytes

What do big lymphocytes do?

- natural killer cells that kill virus-infected and tumor cells in the absence of antibody - triggers cell apoptosis

What do small lymphocytes do?

T cells and B cells are involved in acquired immunity in "vertebrates"

Agranulocytes that can move quickly to infection sites to divide/differentiate to replenish macrophages/dendritic cells

Monocytes

What are the two ways vertebrate cells can take care of nonself particles?

specialized cells can engulf or encapsulate them

tissue used from another individual of the same species

allograft

tissue used from an individual of a different species

xenograft

What happened to invertebrates when given an allograft?

Their bodies reject allografts, and they can reject them faster with a second transplant

Any molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking an antigen for an immune response or marking dead cells for recycling

opsonin

Small proteins involved in cell signaling that act on cells that produce them, nearby cells, and on distant cells

cytokines

What function do cytokines have in invertebrates?

- rapid production of coelomocytes - chemotaxis of coelomocytes - stimulation of phagocytosis

What function do cytokines have in vertebrates?

- rapid production of T cells | - chemotaxis of macrophages

Foreign molecules specifically recognized by lymphocytes

Antigens

Secreted proteins that are dissolved in blood or tissue fluid and combine with the antigens that stimulated their production

Antibody

Portion of an antigen to which an antibody or T cell receptor binds

Epitope

Hormones that are secreted into extracellular fluids by endocrine cells; reach their targets via the bloodstream

Endocrine

Targets lie near secreting cells

Paracrine

Target cell is the secreting cell

Autocrine

Neurons secrete neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on target cells

Synaptic

Specialized neurons secrete neurohormones that travel to target cells via the bloodstream

Neuroendocrine

Convey information via the bloodstream to target cells throughout the body

Hormones

Chemical signals that carry information from one individual to another member of the same species

Pheromones

Signals that travel from one animal to some member of a different species

Allelochemicals

Allelochemical that benefits the sender

Allomones

Allelochemical that benefits the receiver

Kairomones

Allelochemical that benefits both the sender and the receiver

Synomones

What two ways do hormones work through?

membrane-bound receptors and nuclear receptors

How do hormones that use a membrane-bound receptor work?

Hormones that are too large or too polar to pass through a plasma membrane require the use of a signal transduction pathway

How do hormones that use nuclear receptor work?

A hormone enters the cell and binds with a receptor, a hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus, and things get to work

What influences most hormonal activities?

Pituitary gland

What regulates the pituitary gland?

Hypothalamus

Where are topic and non-tropic hormones produced?

Anterior lobe

Regulate other endocrine glands and often involve hormone cascade pathways

Tropic hormones

Directly stimulate target cells to induce effects

Non-tropic hormones

What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin

Regulates the kidney's retention of water

Antidiuretic hormone

Initiates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk release in mothers

Oxytocin

Located in the brain of most vertebrates derived from a light sensitive structure

pineal gland

What roles does the thyroid gland have?

Thyroid hormones play crucial roles in stimulating metabolism and influencing development and maturation

What does the adrenal gland produce?

epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and aldosterone

What do epinephrine and norepinephrine do?

Accelerate heartbeat, increase blood pressure, raise blood sugar levels, and increase blood flow to heart and lungs

Reduces inflammation and stimulates carbohydrate metabolism

cortisol

acts in the kidney to promote the uptake of sodium and other salts from the urine

aldosterone

What two functions does the pancreas have?

Secretes digestive enzymes into the digestive tract and produces insulin and glucagon

Involves the activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in the production of secreted antibodies

Humoral immune response

Involves the Activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells

Cell-mediated immune response

Release cytokines and help modulate the response

Helper T cells