Exam 4 Study Cards (Cumulative Info)

Question 1

social psychology

Answer 1

the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another

Question 2

hindsight bias

Answer 2

the “i knew it all along” phenomenon

the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one’s ability to have foreseen how something turned out.

Question 3

correlational research

Answer 3

the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables

Question 4

experimental research

Answer 4

studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulation one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant)

Question 5

independent variable

Answer 5

the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates

Question 6

dependent variable

Answer 6

the variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable

Question 7

self-esteem

Answer 7

a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth

Question 8

secure self-esteem

Answer 8

secure high self-esteem is characterized by self-esteem that is positive, both implicitly and explicitly

Question 9

fragile self-esteem

Answer 9

characterized by narcissism, the dependence of high self esteem on desired outcomes, an unwillingness to admit the possession of some negative self-feelings, and the fluctuation of self-worth

in the case of fragile self-esteem, individuals’ positive explicit self-esteem doesn’t match their implicit self-esteem, but rather masks the fact that their implicit self-esteem is not positive

Question 10

implicit self-esteem

Answer 10

our more unconscious, visceral (instinctive), immediate feelings about our self-worth

driven by self-evals that are activated AUTOMATICALLY w/out conscious self reflection

Question 11

explicit self-esteem

Answer 11

our more conscious reactions and thought processes when evaluating our self worth

kind of linked to self presentation: it’s what we portray

Question 12

contingent self-esteem

Answer 12

feelings about oneself that are dependent on achieving some standard or living up to certain standards/expectations

Question 13

unstable self-esteem

Answer 13

feelings of self-worth fluctuate across time and situations

Question 14

self-serving bias

Answer 14

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

Question 15

self-presentation

Answer 15

the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one’s ideals

Question 16

terror management theory

Answer 16

proposes that people exhibit self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality

Question 17

priming

Answer 17

activating particular associations in memory

Question 18

belief perseverance

Answer 18

persistence of one’s initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

Question 19

self-esteem

Answer 19

a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self worth

Question 20

secure self-esteem

Answer 20

secure high self-esteem is characterized by self-esteem that is positive, both implicitly and explicitly

Question 21

fragile self-esteem

Answer 21

characterized by narcissism, the dependence of high self-esteem on desired outcomes, an unwillingness to admit the possession of some negative self-feelings, and the fluctuation of feelings of self worth

in the case of fragile high self-esteem, individual’s positive explicit self-esteem does not match their implicit self-esteem, but rather masks the fact that their implicit self-esteem is not positive

Question 22

implicit self-esteem

Answer 22

our more unconscious, visceral (instinctive), immediate feelings about our self worth

driven by self-evals that are activated AUTOMATICALLY w/out conscious self reflection

Question 23

explicit self-esteem

Answer 23

our more conscious reactions and thought processes when evaluating our self worth

kind of linked to self presentation: it’s what we portray

Question 24

contingent self-esteem

Answer 24

feelings about oneself that are dependent on achieving some standard or living up to certain standards/expectations

Question 25

unstable self-esteem

Answer 25

feelings of self-worth fluctuate across time and situations

Question 26

priming

Answer 26

activating particular associations in memory

Question 27

belief perseverance

Answer 27

persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

Question 28

availability heuristic

Answer 28

a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory if instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace

Question 29

representativeness heuristic

Answer 29

the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member

Question 30

counterfactual thinking

Answer 30

imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but did not

Question 31

illusory correlation

Answer 31

perception of a relationship where non exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

Question 32

attribution theory

Answer 32

the theory of how people explain others behavior - for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations

Question 33

fundamental attribution error

Answer 33

the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others behavior (also called correspondence bias b/c we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition)

Question 34

actor/observer bias

Answer 34

the tendency to see others' behavior as caused by disposition but focusing more on the role of situational influences when explaining our own behavior

Question 35

attitudes

Answer 35

a negative or favorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior)

Question 36

implicit attitudes

Answer 36

unconscious evaluation of an object measured by response latency

Question 37

explicit attitudes

Answer 37

conscious evaluation of an object measured by self report

Question 38

Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Answer 38

tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions

Question 39

insufficient justification

Answer 39

in the absence/insufficiency of external justification for our actions, we look inward and change something about ourselves (attitudes/behaviors) to account for why we acted that way

Question 40

justification of effort

Answer 40

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

Question 41

dissonance reduction strategies

Answer 41

1. change behavior to make it consistent w/ beliefs and/or attitudes 2. change attitudes/beliefs to fit behavioral outcome 3. add new cognitions that resolve the discrepancy * usually an unconscious process

Question 42

minimal deterrence

Answer 42

when individuals lack a sufficient external justification for resisting a desired activity, they may reduce the dissonance by devaluing the forbidden activity/object

Question 43

social norms

Answer 43

implicit/explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members

Question 44

cultural match

Answer 44

someone is culturally matched if they act in accordance with the norms it feels natural

Question 45

cultural mismatch

Answer 45

someone is culturally mismatched if they have difficulty/confusion when navigating socially what others do naturally feels uncomfortable

Question 46

conformity

Answer 46

a change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure

Question 47

informational social influence

Answer 47

conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people (usually in an ambiguous situation) you may really start to believe what the majority believes

Question 48

normative social influence

Answer 48

conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance doesn't necessarily mean that your implicit behavior/views change based on those expectations

Question 49

obedience

Answer 49

acting in accordance with a direct order/command

Question 50

persuasion

Answer 50

the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

Question 51

central route to persuasion

Answer 51

used when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Question 52

elaboration likelihood model

Answer 52

describes how people choose to manage info they encounter: central or peripheral route to persuasion depends on level of interest and motivation

Question 53

foot-in-door technique

Answer 53

a persuasion technique in which you present a very reasonable request followed by one that may be a little more outrageous (and the request you originally want granted)

Question 54

door-in-face technique

Answer 54

a persuasion technique in which you present a ridiculous request, which you know will get shot down, followed by a more reasonable request (the one you want granted in the first place)

Question 55

lowballing technique

Answer 55

a persuasion technique: people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante and adds extra cost to the deal

Question 56

social facilitation

Answer 56

ORIGINAL: the tendency for people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present CURRENT: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others

Question 57

social loafing

Answer 57

the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

Question 58

deindividuation

Answer 58

loss of self awareness and evaluation of apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad

Question 59

groupthink

Answer 59

the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action the desire to be cohesive trumps the desire to be right

Question 60

group polarization

Answer 60

group-produced enhancement of members' pre-existing tendencies a strengthening of the members' AVERAGE tendency, not a split w/in the group Group Polarization. A phenomenon wherein the decisions and opinions of people in a group setting become more extreme than their actual, privately held beliefs. Example: After a discussion about racism, members of the group who are racist will defend their attitudes far more strongly than they would have beforehand.

Question 61

stereotypes

Answer 61

beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people; often overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new info

Question 62

minimal group paradigm

Answer 62

most well known as a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups

Question 63

prejudice

Answer 63

a preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members

Question 64

discrimination

Answer 64

unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

Question 65

Allport's Contact Hypothesis

Answer 65

under the right conditions, contact between groups can reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination 1. equal status contact (groups have to be on equal footing) 2. promote cooperation 3. personal contact (show that there are similarities) 4. normative support (social norms promote/expect intergroup contact)

Question 66

ingroups

Answer 66

groups w/ which we feel a sense of membership or belonging "us"

Question 67

outgroups

Answer 67

groups w/ which we DO NOT feel a sense of membership or belonging "them"

Question 68

ingroup bias

Answer 68

the tendency to favor our own group

Question 69

outgroup homogeneity effect

Answer 69

the tendency to see members of outgroups as being similar to each other while seeing the ingroup as a diverse group

Question 70

stereotype threat

Answer 70

the anxiety one feels when they're aware that they belong to a certain stereotype and they're attempting not to uphold that stereotype

Question 71

Jigsaw classroom

Answer 71

designed to reduce prejudice raise self esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups & making each child dependent on the others in the group to learn the course material & do well in the class

Question 72

aggression

Answer 72

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

Question 73

hostile aggression

Answer 73

aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure

Question 74

instrumental aggression

Answer 74

aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end

Question 75

frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 75

frustration increases the probability of an aggressive response also, frustration and anger coupled with cues from the environment can lead to aggression

Question 76

the weapons effect

Answer 76

a weapon provides an aggressive cue that increases the probability of the release of pent up aggression and anger

Question 77

social learning theory

Answer 77

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating, and by being rewarded and punished

Question 78

peripheral route to persuasion

Answer 78

used when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness