exam 4 (oh no....) Flashcards
Self-Schema
an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about the self that help us efficiently perceive, organize, interpret, and use information related to ourselves. Helps us filter info so we can process things that are self-relevant over other things.
Self-Concept
The larger, overall idea we have about who we are including our beliefs and general information about ourselves. Sometimes referred to as identity. (I)
Working Self-Concept
only a certain amount of self-info can be held at once. what’s immediately available is within the working self-concept. Tends to guide behavior (ex. being american is more important to you if you are in toronto than if you were in boston) (ME)
cognition
mental activity that includes thinking and understanding that result from thinking.
thinking
the mental manipulations of of knowledge about the world
analogical representations
mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of what they represent. ex. clocks, maps
symbolic representations
abstract mental representations that do not have any physical characteristics of what they represent. usually words, numbers, or ideas.
mental maps
use symbolic and analogical representations
concept
category or class of related items consisting of mental representations of those items.
prototype model
a way of thinking about concepts: within each category there is a best example (prototype) for that category
prototype
the best example of something in a category, usually the first thing you think of. ex: dog, golden retriever
exemplar model
a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples, they form the concept and determine category membership
script
a schema that directs behavior over time within a situation
stereotypes
cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fact processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups. can also affect ideas of the self.
contain: expectations, interpretations, judgement, standards
reasoning
organizing things and applying logic
needs truth and validity to be a sound argument
thinking and understanding
perception and memory.
integrative process (learning in light of what you already know)
emotions
ubiquitous (ever-present), immediate, subjective, evaluative, !reactions! to environmental events. feelings are part of emotions.
made of: physiological reactions, cognitive components, phenomenological experiences.
moods
diffuse, long lasting states, no specific trigger, general, affect the way we think and interpret.
what emotions do
provide context-appropriate behavior patterns. communicate internal states to others. serve adaptive, cognitive, and relationship purposes.
facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions influence a person’s emotional experience. ex. smile more and you might actually feel happy
James Lange Theory of Emotion
stimulus -> physiological arousal -> phenomenological experience
-implies that all emotions have different physiological signs, but that’s not true
-some feelings come before physical reactions (ex. embarrassment)
Canon-Bard Theory of Emotion
stimulus -> physiological arousal AND phenomenological experience
Schacter-Singer Theory /Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
stimulus-> physiological arousal -> cognitive interpretation -> phenomenological experience
-we can misattribute arousal
self-esteem
our feelings, judgements, and evaluations about our self-concept
motivation
driving force behind behavior that: activates, sustains, and directs behavior.
reinforcement based
behavior is shaped by contingencies
physiological motivation
neurobiological basis, homeostasis
-instincts (unlearned, automatic, response), needs (states of depravity), drives (to satisfy needs)
cognitive motivation
purpose, goal oriented, expectation based
-intrinsic and extrinsic
intrinsic motivation
internal, psychological
extrinsic motivation
external, for rewards
process of social cognition
is what creates/shapes our attitudes:
-attention, where you focus it
-interpretation, what meaning you give
-judgement
-memory
A(ffect)
self esteem
self esteem
feelings, judgements and evaluations about your self concept, yourself
B(ehavior)
motivation
motivation
physiological: intrinsic needs and drives
cognitive: intrinsic and extrinsic
C(ognition)
self concept
needs
to be liked, loved and belong
to be unique, special and different
for consistency, coherence and control
lay psychology
everyone is, in ways, an inner-psychologist
attribution of causality
behavior is a function of either the person or the situation. a way in which we gain a sense of control.
for others: it’s the person
for ourselves: it’s the situation
managing self image
attribution of causality, reconstructive process of memory
fundamental attribution error
overemphasizing the influence a person’s character has on a behavior they performed.
the actor-observer divergence
a cognitive bias that occurs when people explain their own behavior differently than others.
reconstructive process of memory
make past actions concurrent with the present
current emotions influence what we remember
retelling memories changes them.
self-serving biases
tendency to see ourselves more positively than we should.
strengthened or weakened by:
objective vs subjective
public vs private
aschematic vs schematic
more likely to self serve in cases that are
subjective, private, schematic
self-enhancing
always associating self with positives
self-effacing
avoiding associating self with negatives
counter defensiveness
giving away credits for positive things and actively take blame for negatives
false consensus
overestimating amount of people who believe the same thing
false uniqueness
underestimating how many people share the same traits
representative heuristic
a mental shortcut people use to make decisions based on how similar something is to a category’s typical features. conserves effort.
covariation theory
focused on attributions: situational or personal. information can be used and interpreted systematically.
uses:
1. consistency–do they do this regularly?
2. distinctiveness-do they do similar things?
3. consensus-do others do this too?
situational factors for cognitions leading to behaviors
constraints
choice
attitudinal factors for cognitions leading to behaviors
origins
strength
specificity
behaviors leading to cognitions
role playing (nd self vs hs self)
foot-in-the-door (little step before big step)
gradual escalation (like above but more steps)
cognitive dissonance
negative aversive tension
arises because of an incongruence between any two attitudinal components
occurs with preexisting attitudes only
basis of relationships
liking
factors predicting liking
proximity
familiarity
similarity
attractiveness
reciprocity
components of love
intimacy
passion
commitment
conformity
being influenced by others/group pressure
involves:
-compliance, obedience, acceptance
affected by:
-social roles, social norms, status, cohesiveness, unanimity
persuasion
change in beliefs/values in response to receiving a message
dual process models of persuasion
central/cognitive route
peripheral/affective route
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
the amount of effort a person puts into processing a message determines how they are likely to be persuaded
central/cognitive route of persuasion
cognitive elaboration used. results in cases:
favorable thoughts-> positive attitude change
unfavorable thoughts ->negative attitude change
mix/neutral thoughts-> if peripheral cues present then attitude will change
peripheral/affective route of persuasion
minimal cognitive elaboration. affective focus.
peripheral cue present-> attitudinal change
peripheral cue absent -> no change
peripheral cue
superficial characteristics that can be used to persuade
ignorance hypothesis
a general lack of knowledge of other groups explains stereotypes
in-group/out-group effect
we tend to judge and treat people who are like us more favorably than people who are different from us.
minimal intergroup paradigm
a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups
1) novel and arbitrary group categorization
2) anonymity and no interaction among group members
3) no direct benefits to the participant in outcome measures
perceived out-group homogeneity effect
assuming everyone in the other group is the same:
-decreases the within group variability in the out-group
-increases between group differences
-does not change in-group variability
how to counteract negative stereotypes
-out-group must have traits to counteract negative stereotypes
-contact must be supported by the community
-groups must be of equal status
-contact must occur at individual level
-contact should be rewarding
-SUPERORDINATE GOAL
superordinate goal
goal is NOT just tolerance but actual genuine acceptance
human behavior
person x situation
goal driven
aggression
behavior intended to cause harm to others
types of aggression
hostile/emotional/impulsive
instrumental/cognitive
means of expression of aggression
physical/direct
nonphysical/indirect
instinct/drive theory of aggression
aggression is inherited and biological.
no empirical support for this, freudian.
frustration-aggression hypothesis
aggression is simply a response to frustration
frustration
negative emotional state when goal directed behavior is blocked
OR
negative emotion that can lead to aggression
restructuring
a method of problem solving in which you rework the problem to find the solution.
mental sets
problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
functional fixedness
having fixed ideas about the function of an object. ex. in a car crash you wouldn’t think about using the seat belt buckle to break the window.
algorithm
strategy for problem solving. a guideline that, when followed correctly, will always lead to the correct answer no matter how long it takes.
analogical problem solving
comparing your situation to an analogous one to find an out of the box solution
insight
the sudden realization of the solution of a problem
feeling
subjective experience of the emotion but not the emotion itself.
primary emotions
emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal across cultures. including anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, contempt.
secondary emotions
blends of primary emotions, feelings about emotions, or emotions that relate to culturally specific values or concepts. such as remorse, guilt, shame, jealousy, pride, love.
insula
part of the limbic system. receives and integrates somatosensory signals from the entire body. involved in subjective awareness of bodily states
amygdala
part of the limbic system. processes the emotional significance of stimuli and generates immediate emotional behavior and reactions. comes from (evolutionarily) the need to protect ourselves from danger. has a slow path and a fast path. also involved in perception of social stimuli.
misattribution of arousal
men walking across scary vs safe bridge w pretty woman.. people scared say the woman was more attractive than the ones who were not scared.
attributing your arousal to something other than the cause.
suppression
attempting not to respond at all to the emotional stimulus
rebound effect
people think more about something that they’re trying to suppress.
rumination
thinking about, elaborating on, and becoming stuck in a cycle of undesired thoughts or feelings.
reappraising
changing the meaning of something to regulate your emotional reaction to it (ex scary movie is not real, just a movie)
self-distancing
creating mental distance by taking a different perspective on a situation
display rules
rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable in given situations
ideal affect
emotional or affective states that people want to feel or that cultures especially value
self-actualization
period in life when one’s dreams are accomplished
drive
a psychological state that, using arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance on challenging tasks increases with arousal up to a moderate level. after that, additional arousal impairs performance.
incentives
external objects or external goals that motivate behaviors.
pleasure principle / hedonism
fruedian/greek. says people seek pleasure and avoid pain.
balance theory
The idea that people are motivated to achieve harmony in their interpersonal relationships. A triad is balanced when the relationships are all the same direction or if two relationships are negative and one is positive.
self-affirmation
a need for a sense of self that is coherent and stable
core values
Strongly held beliefs about the enduring principles that are most important and meaningful. Values promote emotions and actions when they are aroused or threatened.
self-determination theory
people are motivated to satisfy needs for competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy. these three basic needs must be met in order to thrive and do the best creative work.
social identity theory
in-groups consist of people who perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and take pride in their group membership
in-group favoritism
the tendency for people to evaluate those in the in-group more favorably than those in the out-group
risky-shift effect
groups often make riskier decisions than individuals do
group polarization
the process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time.
groupthink
The tendency of a group to make a bad decision as a result of preserving the group and maintaining its cohesiveness; especially likely when the group is under intense pressure, is facing external threats, and is biased in a particular direction.
social facilitation
the idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance if the required action is easy or already well learned. in cases in which the task is difficult or not learned performance is impaired.
social loafing
the tendency for people to work less hard when in a group than when alone
deindividuation
a state of reduced individuality, reduced self awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards due to being part of a group
conformity
the altering of behaviors to align with the group
normative influence
the tendency for people to conform to a group
informational influence
the tendency of people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond.
social norms
expected behaviors in societies
Stanley Milgram Shock Experiment – Obedience
researcher told people to shock someone and they continued to do it even when the person yelled out for them to stop and even when they became unresponsive. showed the power of authority figures.
prosocial behaviors
actions that benefit others. humans are prone to prosocial behaviors
inclusive fitness
explains prosocial behaviors in darwinistic terms… we perform prosocial behaviors because we want the next generation to have the strength to survive so helping others gets us there in ways
bystander intervention effect
the failure to offer help in a situation in which many people are witnessing something bad occurring. (better to get stranded on an empty road than the highway)
diffusion of responsibility
bystanders expect others to be the one who helps
mere exposure effect
being exposed to a stimulus more and more will lead to a liking of it. music as example.
Implicit Association Test
choosing “good or male” “bad or female” as quickly as possible with words that could be associated with either in order to test implicit attitudes toward people. example: it starts easy with words like girl or evil and then gets harder with words such as hardworking or careful.
Berkowitz theory of aggression
reformulates the frustration-aggression hypothesis. frustration is an unpleasant experience that CAN but doesnt always lead to aggression.
general affective aggression model
current theory of aggression.
social/situational or personal variable -> arousal, emotion, cognition and an appraisal process -> aggression or non-aggression
social/situational variables
frustration, provocation, social rejection, media exposure, video game violence
personal variables
gender, personality type
