exam 4 in class quizzes Flashcards by Chloe Powers

what 3 things happen during dark adaptation? which is fastest?

pupil dilates (fastest)
function circuitry of the brain changes so the brain starts paying attention to rods
the all trans retinal from the rods is converted back to II-cis retinal in the pigmented retina

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what is produced by the ceruminous glands?

ear wax- modified sebum

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ganglion cells synapse in which thalamic nucleus?

lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

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what is the abbreviation for the glutamate receptor on on-center bipolar cells? What type of receptor is it?

-mGluR6 receptor
-Gi protein coupled receptor

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what is the abbreviation for the glutamate receptor on off-center bipolar cells? what type of receptor is it?

-AMPA glutamate receptor
-non-specific ion channel

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scientific name for eardrum

tympanic membrane

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name of membrane separating the middle and inner ear that is in contact with one of the auditory ossicles

oval window

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2 terms for visible part of external ear

-pinna
-auricle

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list auditory ossicles from most external to most internal

malleus, incus, stapes

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what are the 2 names for the tube that connects middle ear to nasopharynx? purpose of tube?

-eustachian or auditory tube
-equalizes pressure between middle ear and outer ear/atmosphere

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what is the purpose of the auditory ossicles?

-simplify the vibration in tympanic membrane
-cut the oval window

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at the optic chiasm…

all axons from ganglion cells on the medial side of the retina cross to the contralateral side of the brain

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the cochlear ducts are filled with ___________ which is high in ____________

endolymph, potassium

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the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani are connected at the ____________, located at the apex of the cochlea

helicotrema

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what is actin bound to specifically in smooth muscle

dense bodies

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what term is used to mean that a muscle partly, but not fully, relaxes before contracting again, then partly relaxes before contracting again and so forth for a period of time?

unfused tetanus

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what term is used to mean that a muscle stays fully contracted for a period of time?

fused tetanus

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most common to least common types of fatigue

most: central command fatigue,
muscle fatigue,
least: synaptic fatigue

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3 ways a skeletal muscle can phosphorylate ADP fastest to slowest

fastest: phosphocreatine,
glycolysis,
slowest: oxidative phosphorylation

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3 ways a skeletal muscle can phosphorylate ADP most to least efficient. how many ATP molecules can you get from each?

most efficient: oxidative phosphorylation (36 atp/glucose),
glycolysis (2 atp/glucose),
least efficient: phosphocreatine (1 atp/phosphocreatine)

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what happens in synaptic fatigue

the motor neuron releases ACh faster than it can be made (usually the result of disease that reduces the neuron’s ability to make ACh)

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a person who eats a standard diet of 50% of calories from carbohydrates, 20% from protein, and 30% from fat runs a marathon in 4.5 hours. What would be true about the fuel this person’s skeletal muscles use to generate ATP, assuming they consumed no calories during the race?

in the first two hours, the skeletal muscles will use glucose for energy, then switch to using fatty acids.

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at a skeletal muscle’s optimum length for contraction…

all the myosin heads are next to actin

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if a skeletal muscle is shorter than its optimum length for contraction …. (select all that apply)

-the actin molecules may be bumping up against each other or overlapping
-titin is being compressed

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the constant tension maintained in a skeletal muscle by keeping some muscle fibers in tetanus is called..?

muscle tone

what binds to myosin light-chain kinase to activate this enzyme in smooth muscle cells?

Ca++ calmodulin complex

what does calcium bind to in smooth muscle that leads to contractions?

calmodulin

compared to normal, during muscle fatigue

Ca++ levels are higher in the cytoplasm

smooth muscle contraction is _________ skeletal muscle contraction

slower than

which fibers tend to be larger (in diameter)?

Type IIb fibers

which type of contraction is most likely to cause skeletal muscle hypertrophy?

eccentric contraction

which type of fiber would fatigue the quickest?

Type IIb fibers, bc they run out of substrate

Which type of fiber would have the most glycogen?

Type IIb fibers

which type of fiber would have the most mitochondria?

Type I fibers

Which type of fiber would have the most myoglobin?

Type I fibers

during muscle fatigue, there is a substantial decrease in ATP in the cell

false

in a resting smooth muscle cell, tropomyosin covers the active sites on actin

false

skeletal muscle fibers can change their phenotype

true

smooth muscle cells have T-tubules

false

the muscles for eye movement only have fast-glycolytic fibers

false; they MOSTLY have them

the myosin head has high affinity for actin in a smooth muscle cell when the light chains of myosin are...?

phosphorylated

a skeletal muscle cell that is not fatigued ....

will always generate the same tension in response to a single action potential

at any point in the cross-bridge cycle, the myosin head has...

about equal affinity for ADP and ATP

delayed onset muscle soreness is caused by...

microtears in the muscle and inflammation

The semicircular canals are all at right angles to eachother

true

there are action potentials being fired in vestibular afferents when the stereocilia of a vestibular hair cell are pointing straight up

true

there is a form of lateral inhibition in the auditory system

true

higher frequency sound waves cause the basilar membrane closer to the ___________ to vibrate

oval window

our sensation of sound comes from the activation of....?

inner hair cells

when the stereocilia of an auditory hair cell are deflected toward the tallest stereocilia...

-the tip links pull on the potassium channels -hair cell depolarizes

head tilt is detected in the ....?

utricle (oriented in horizontal plane)

the ____________ tells you if you are falling

saccule

hair cells release

glutamate

The stereocilia of auditory hair cells project toward the ___________ membrane

tectorial

If the semi-circular canal above started to spin in a counterclockwise direction the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would.....

be deflected to the left

if the semicircular canal above continued to spin in a counterclockwise direction at the same angle and speed, after a few seconds the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would....

not be deflected

if the semicircular canal above suddenly stopped a counterclockwise rotation, the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would....

be deflected to the right

what brain location is responsible for the reflex of a sudden loud sound causing a person to look toward the sound?

inferior colliculus

some people feel motion sickness when there is a disconnect between which two senses?

vision + vestibular system

what three things does the vestibular system detect?

1. falling in the saccule 2. acceleration 3. head-tilt

what three senses give us our sense of posture and movement?

1. vestibular system 2. vision 3. proprioception

what is the purpose of outer hair cells? how does this work?

-protect inner hair cells from overstimulation -important for localizing vibrations in the basilar membrane for the correct frequency -do this by pushing up on the tectorial membrane when the vibrations are very strong to prevent overstimulation, and pushing up on the tectorial membrane on either side of the area of maximum vibration to help localize for frequency

most wavelengths of visible light activate more than one type of cone

true

different types of cones have different forms of ..?

opsin

near-sightedness is associated with...?

too much refraction

the perception of color comes from

cones

which have a greater number of photopigments?

rods

which is quicker? dark or light adaptation

light adaptation

the fovea centralis has..?

only cones

the highest concentration of mitochondria in a photoreceptor is found in the...?

inner segment

which nerve innervates the ciliary muscle of the eye?

oculomotor nerve

which receptor for epinephrine would you find on the ciliary muscle of the eye?

the beta-2 adrenergic receptor

which receptor for the parasympathetic nervous system would you find on the ciliary muscle of the eye?

the M3 muscarinic receptor

of the cells in the retina, actions potentials can be fired by...?

ganglion cells only

humans perceive different wavelengths of visible light as different...?

colors

aging is associated with a loss of _________ fibers throughout the body, including in the lens of the eye

elastic

what is the name of the photopigment in the human eye and what are the two components of this photopigment? which is a receptor and which is the ligand?

rhodopsin opsin-receptor retinal-ligand

activation of odorant receptors leads to activation of protein kinase A and phosphorylation of a nonspecific cation channel

false

most of our sense of taste comes from activation of olfactory receptors

true

olfactory hairs are normally covered in mucus

true

one neuron will innervate several skeletal muscle fibers

true

one skeletal muscle fiber will be innervated by several neurons

false

one type of odorant receptor will bind more than one type of odorant

true

one type of odorant will bind to more than one type of odorant receptor

true

some second order olfactory neurons project directly to cerebral cortex without synapsing in the thalamus

true

the mechanism of release of paracrine agent by taste cells is very similar to the mechanism of neurotransmitter release from neurons

true

the primary odorant in bananas and the primary odorant in beaver musk can activate some of the same receptors

true

receptors for somatic sensation are important to our sense of taste

true

first order olfactory neurons ____________ onto second order neurons

converge

the fluid in the t-tubules is high in ....?

sodium

the Golf protein is most similar to...?

Gs proteins

protein kinase A phosphorylates a _______________ channel in umami taste cells

calcium

phosphorylation of the above channel in the umami taste cell causes the channel to ..?

activation of the umami receptor causes the above channel to be ...?

dephosphorylated

protein kinase A phosphorylates a _____________ channel in sweet taste cells

potassium

phosphorylation of the above channel in the sweet taste cell causes the channel to ...?

activation of the sweet receptor causes the above channel to be..?

phosphorylated

there are most different types of receptors for ...?

bitter

what nerve innervates the taste cells on the inferior surface of the tongue?

the glossopharyngeal nerve

what nerve innervates the taste cells on the soft palate and pharynx?

the vagus nerve

what nerve innervates the taste cells on the superior surface of the tongue?

the facial nerve

taste cells and found on/in (select all)

-the palate -the pharynx -the tongue

what is the scientific name for taste

gustation

what is the scientific name for smell

olfaction

what is the proposed paracrine agent that is released by taste cells onto their sensory afferents?

ATP

what is the purpose of lingual papillae in humans according to the video?

to increase surface area for taste buds/cells

what is the purpose of the taste hairs?

increase the surface area for taste receptor proteins

first order taste afferents synapse in which nucleus in the brain?

the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS)

second order neurons in the taste pathway synapse in which thalamic nucleus?

ventral posterior medial nucleus of thalamus

First order olfactory neurons synapse in which area of the brain?

olfactory bulb

what are two names for the second order neurons in the olfactory pathway?

mitral or tufted cells

besides projecting to the cerebral cortex and thalamus, what 3 other brain regions can second order olfactory neurons project to? what role does olfactory information play in each of these regions?

-hippocampus- odor memory -hypothalamus- sexual arousal, hunger -amygdala- emotional aspects of odor/smell (primarily fear in animals)

what six factors affect our olfactory discrimination?

1. attentiveness 2. hunger 3. biological sex 4. cigarette smoking 5. age 6. state of olfactory mucosa

four properties of all muscle

1. contraction 2. excitable 3. extensible 4. elastic

what are the three proteins found in the thin myofilament?

1. actin 2. tropomyosin 3. troponin

what are the two proteins found in the thick myofilament?

1. myosin light chain 2. myosin heavy chain

the myosin head has binding sites for which three molecules?

1. myosin light chain 2. actin 3. ATP/ADP

during the contraction phase of a skeletal muscle twitch, all the active sites on actin are exposed in the cells

true

L-type calcium channels are present throughout the plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle cell

false

more calcium enters the cytoplasm from the sarcoplasmic reticulum than from the extracellular fluid in response to an action potential in skeletal muscle cell

true

there are voltage gated sodium channels in the t-tubules

true

the lag phase is longer in a ...

isotonic contraction

which phase in longer in an isometric skeletal muscle contraction?

relaxation phase

during contraction...?

the I band and the H zone get shorter

each thick myofilament is in contact with how many thin myofilament?

each thin myofilament is in contact with how many thick myofilaments

a single alpha motor neuron plus all the muscle fibers it innervates is called a ___?

motor unit

nerve gas blocks

acetylcholinesterase

the time between when you get an action potential in a skeletal muscle cell or alpha motor neuron to the start of contraction is called the ______________?

lag phase/latent period

paralytic drugs are usually _______ receptor ___________

nicotinic receptors antagonists

botulinum toxin cause the breakdown of what proteins?

SNARE proteins in neuromuscular junction

what is the post-synaptic density called in a skeletal muscle cell?

motor end plate

what is the segment of a skeletal muscle cell that goes from one Z disk to the next Z disk called?

sarcomere

what neurotransmitter is released by alpha motor neurons

ACh

what protein was mentioned as contributing to the extensibility and elasticity of skeletal muscle, as well as helping to keep myosin in register in the myofibril?

titin

what receptor for neurotransmitter is present on skeletal muscle cells?

nicotinc receptors

what is the name of the two calcium binding proteins in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what is their purpose?

-calreticulin and calsequestrian -decrease conc. of Ca in sarcoplasmic reticulum to allow more Ca to be pumped and stored in organelle

what are the three subunits of troponin and what do each of the subunits do?

1. I- actin 2. T- tropomyosin 3. C- calcium

in population coding, if i want to increase the tension developed in a muscle, what does the body do?

recruit more motor units