exam 4 in class quizzes Flashcards
what 3 things happen during dark adaptation? which is fastest?
- pupil dilates (fastest)
- function circuitry of the brain changes so the brain starts paying attention to rods
- the all trans retinal from the rods is converted back to II-cis retinal in the pigmented retina
what is produced by the ceruminous glands?
ear wax- modified sebum
ganglion cells synapse in which thalamic nucleus?
lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
what is the abbreviation for the glutamate receptor on on-center bipolar cells? What type of receptor is it?
-mGluR6 receptor
-Gi protein coupled receptor
what is the abbreviation for the glutamate receptor on off-center bipolar cells? what type of receptor is it?
-AMPA glutamate receptor
-non-specific ion channel
scientific name for eardrum
tympanic membrane
name of membrane separating the middle and inner ear that is in contact with one of the auditory ossicles
oval window
2 terms for visible part of external ear
-pinna
-auricle
list auditory ossicles from most external to most internal
malleus, incus, stapes
what are the 2 names for the tube that connects middle ear to nasopharynx? purpose of tube?
-eustachian or auditory tube
-equalizes pressure between middle ear and outer ear/atmosphere
what is the purpose of the auditory ossicles?
-simplify the vibration in tympanic membrane
-cut the oval window
at the optic chiasm…
all axons from ganglion cells on the medial side of the retina cross to the contralateral side of the brain
the cochlear ducts are filled with ___________ which is high in ____________
endolymph, potassium
the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani are connected at the ____________, located at the apex of the cochlea
helicotrema
what is actin bound to specifically in smooth muscle
dense bodies
what term is used to mean that a muscle partly, but not fully, relaxes before contracting again, then partly relaxes before contracting again and so forth for a period of time?
unfused tetanus
what term is used to mean that a muscle stays fully contracted for a period of time?
fused tetanus
most common to least common types of fatigue
most: central command fatigue,
muscle fatigue,
least: synaptic fatigue
3 ways a skeletal muscle can phosphorylate ADP fastest to slowest
fastest: phosphocreatine,
glycolysis,
slowest: oxidative phosphorylation
3 ways a skeletal muscle can phosphorylate ADP most to least efficient. how many ATP molecules can you get from each?
most efficient: oxidative phosphorylation (36 atp/glucose),
glycolysis (2 atp/glucose),
least efficient: phosphocreatine (1 atp/phosphocreatine)
what happens in synaptic fatigue
the motor neuron releases ACh faster than it can be made (usually the result of disease that reduces the neuron’s ability to make ACh)
a person who eats a standard diet of 50% of calories from carbohydrates, 20% from protein, and 30% from fat runs a marathon in 4.5 hours. What would be true about the fuel this person’s skeletal muscles use to generate ATP, assuming they consumed no calories during the race?
in the first two hours, the skeletal muscles will use glucose for energy, then switch to using fatty acids.
at a skeletal muscle’s optimum length for contraction…
all the myosin heads are next to actin
if a skeletal muscle is shorter than its optimum length for contraction …. (select all that apply)
-the actin molecules may be bumping up against each other or overlapping
-titin is being compressed
the constant tension maintained in a skeletal muscle by keeping some muscle fibers in tetanus is called..?
muscle tone
what binds to myosin light-chain kinase to activate this enzyme in smooth muscle cells?
Ca++ calmodulin complex
what does calcium bind to in smooth muscle that leads to contractions?
calmodulin
compared to normal, during muscle fatigue
Ca++ levels are higher in the cytoplasm
smooth muscle contraction is _________ skeletal muscle contraction
slower than
which fibers tend to be larger (in diameter)?
Type IIb fibers
which type of contraction is most likely to cause skeletal muscle hypertrophy?
eccentric contraction
which type of fiber would fatigue the quickest?
Type IIb fibers, bc they run out of substrate
Which type of fiber would have the most glycogen?
Type IIb fibers
which type of fiber would have the most mitochondria?
Type I fibers
Which type of fiber would have the most myoglobin?
Type I fibers
during muscle fatigue, there is a substantial decrease in ATP in the cell
false
in a resting smooth muscle cell, tropomyosin covers the active sites on actin
false
skeletal muscle fibers can change their phenotype
true
smooth muscle cells have T-tubules
false
the muscles for eye movement only have fast-glycolytic fibers
false; they MOSTLY have them
the myosin head has high affinity for actin in a smooth muscle cell when the light chains of myosin are…?
phosphorylated
a skeletal muscle cell that is not fatigued ….
will always generate the same tension in response to a single action potential
at any point in the cross-bridge cycle, the myosin head has…
about equal affinity for ADP and ATP
delayed onset muscle soreness is caused by…
microtears in the muscle and inflammation
The semicircular canals are all at right angles to eachother
true
there are action potentials being fired in vestibular afferents when the stereocilia of a vestibular hair cell are pointing straight up
true
there is a form of lateral inhibition in the auditory system
true
higher frequency sound waves cause the basilar membrane closer to the ___________ to vibrate
oval window
our sensation of sound comes from the activation of….?
inner hair cells
when the stereocilia of an auditory hair cell are deflected toward the tallest stereocilia…
-the tip links pull on the potassium channels
-hair cell depolarizes
head tilt is detected in the ….?
utricle (oriented in horizontal plane)
the ____________ tells you if you are falling
saccule
hair cells release
glutamate
The stereocilia of auditory hair cells project toward the ___________ membrane
tectorial
If the semi-circular canal above started to spin in a counterclockwise direction the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would…..
be deflected to the left
if the semicircular canal above continued to spin in a counterclockwise direction at the same angle and speed, after a few seconds the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would….
not be deflected
if the semicircular canal above suddenly stopped a counterclockwise rotation, the stereocilia of the hair cells in the cupula would….
be deflected to the right
what brain location is responsible for the reflex of a sudden loud sound causing a person to look toward the sound?
inferior colliculus
some people feel motion sickness when there is a disconnect between which two senses?
vision + vestibular system
what three things does the vestibular system detect?
- falling in the saccule
- acceleration
- head-tilt
what three senses give us our sense of posture and movement?
- vestibular system
- vision
- proprioception
what is the purpose of outer hair cells? how does this work?
-protect inner hair cells from overstimulation
-important for localizing vibrations in the basilar membrane for the correct frequency
-do this by pushing up on the tectorial membrane when the vibrations are very strong to prevent overstimulation, and pushing up on the tectorial membrane on either side of the area of maximum vibration to help localize for frequency
most wavelengths of visible light activate more than one type of cone
true
different types of cones have different forms of ..?
opsin
near-sightedness is associated with…?
too much refraction
the perception of color comes from
cones
which have a greater number of photopigments?
rods
which is quicker? dark or light adaptation
light adaptation
the fovea centralis has..?
only cones
the highest concentration of mitochondria in a photoreceptor is found in the…?
inner segment
which nerve innervates the ciliary muscle of the eye?
oculomotor nerve
which receptor for epinephrine would you find on the ciliary muscle of the eye?
the beta-2 adrenergic receptor
which receptor for the parasympathetic nervous system would you find on the ciliary muscle of the eye?
the M3 muscarinic receptor
of the cells in the retina, actions potentials can be fired by…?
ganglion cells only
humans perceive different wavelengths of visible light as different…?
colors
aging is associated with a loss of _________ fibers throughout the body, including in the lens of the eye
elastic
what is the name of the photopigment in the human eye and what are the two components of this photopigment? which is a receptor and which is the ligand?
rhodopsin
opsin-receptor
retinal-ligand
activation of odorant receptors leads to activation of protein kinase A and phosphorylation of a nonspecific cation channel
false
most of our sense of taste comes from activation of olfactory receptors
true
olfactory hairs are normally covered in mucus
true
one neuron will innervate several skeletal muscle fibers
true
one skeletal muscle fiber will be innervated by several neurons
false
one type of odorant receptor will bind more than one type of odorant
true
one type of odorant will bind to more than one type of odorant receptor
true
some second order olfactory neurons project directly to cerebral cortex without synapsing in the thalamus
true
the mechanism of release of paracrine agent by taste cells is very similar to the mechanism of neurotransmitter release from neurons
true
the primary odorant in bananas and the primary odorant in beaver musk can activate some of the same receptors
true
receptors for somatic sensation are important to our sense of taste
true
first order olfactory neurons ____________ onto second order neurons
converge
the fluid in the t-tubules is high in ….?
sodium
the Golf protein is most similar to…?
Gs proteins
protein kinase A phosphorylates a _______________ channel in umami taste cells
calcium
phosphorylation of the above channel in the umami taste cell causes the channel to ..?
close
activation of the umami receptor causes the above channel to be …?
dephosphorylated
protein kinase A phosphorylates a _____________ channel in sweet taste cells
potassium
phosphorylation of the above channel in the sweet taste cell causes the channel to …?
close
activation of the sweet receptor causes the above channel to be..?
phosphorylated
there are most different types of receptors for …?
bitter
what nerve innervates the taste cells on the inferior surface of the tongue?
the glossopharyngeal nerve
what nerve innervates the taste cells on the soft palate and pharynx?
the vagus nerve
what nerve innervates the taste cells on the superior surface of the tongue?
the facial nerve
taste cells and found on/in (select all)
-the palate
-the pharynx
-the tongue
what is the scientific name for taste
gustation
what is the scientific name for smell
olfaction
what is the proposed paracrine agent that is released by taste cells onto their sensory afferents?
ATP
what is the purpose of lingual papillae in humans according to the video?
to increase surface area for taste buds/cells
what is the purpose of the taste hairs?
increase the surface area for taste receptor proteins
first order taste afferents synapse in which nucleus in the brain?
the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS)
second order neurons in the taste pathway synapse in which thalamic nucleus?
ventral posterior medial nucleus of thalamus
First order olfactory neurons synapse in which area of the brain?
olfactory bulb
what are two names for the second order neurons in the olfactory pathway?
mitral or tufted cells
besides projecting to the cerebral cortex and thalamus, what 3 other brain regions can second order olfactory neurons project to? what role does olfactory information play in each of these regions?
-hippocampus- odor memory
-hypothalamus- sexual arousal, hunger
-amygdala- emotional aspects of odor/smell (primarily fear in animals)
what six factors affect our olfactory discrimination?
- attentiveness
- hunger
- biological sex
- cigarette smoking
- age
- state of olfactory mucosa
four properties of all muscle
- contraction
- excitable
- extensible
- elastic
what are the three proteins found in the thin myofilament?
- actin
- tropomyosin
- troponin
what are the two proteins found in the thick myofilament?
- myosin light chain
- myosin heavy chain
the myosin head has binding sites for which three molecules?
- myosin light chain
- actin
- ATP/ADP
during the contraction phase of a skeletal muscle twitch, all the active sites on actin are exposed in the cells
true
L-type calcium channels are present throughout the plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle cell
false
more calcium enters the cytoplasm from the sarcoplasmic reticulum than from the extracellular fluid in response to an action potential in skeletal muscle cell
true
there are voltage gated sodium channels in the t-tubules
true
the lag phase is longer in a …
isotonic contraction
which phase in longer in an isometric skeletal muscle contraction?
relaxation phase
during contraction…?
the I band and the H zone get shorter
each thick myofilament is in contact with how many thin myofilament?
6
each thin myofilament is in contact with how many thick myofilaments
3
a single alpha motor neuron plus all the muscle fibers it innervates is called a ___?
motor unit
nerve gas blocks
acetylcholinesterase
the time between when you get an action potential in a skeletal muscle cell or alpha motor neuron to the start of contraction is called the ______________?
lag phase/latent period
paralytic drugs are usually _______ receptor ___________
nicotinic receptors antagonists
botulinum toxin cause the breakdown of what proteins?
SNARE proteins in neuromuscular junction
what is the post-synaptic density called in a skeletal muscle cell?
motor end plate
what is the segment of a skeletal muscle cell that goes from one Z disk to the next Z disk called?
sarcomere
what neurotransmitter is released by alpha motor neurons
ACh
what protein was mentioned as contributing to the extensibility and elasticity of skeletal muscle, as well as helping to keep myosin in register in the myofibril?
titin
what receptor for neurotransmitter is present on skeletal muscle cells?
nicotinc receptors
what is the name of the two calcium binding proteins in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what is their purpose?
-calreticulin and calsequestrian
-decrease conc. of Ca in sarcoplasmic reticulum to allow more Ca to be pumped and stored in organelle
what are the three subunits of troponin and what do each of the subunits do?
- I- actin
- T- tropomyosin
- C- calcium
in population coding, if i want to increase the tension developed in a muscle, what does the body do?
recruit more motor units
