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A&P > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

smallest unit of life

A

cell

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1
Q

4 cell groups

A
  1. epithelial
  2. muscle
  3. connective
  4. neural
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2
Q

tissue

A

a group of 1 kind of cell and the extracellular matrix that function together

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3
Q

matrix contains

A

fluid, fibers, non-fibrous, glycoproteins

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4
Q

organ

A

group of 2 or more types of tissues that function together for a common purpose

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5
Q

functional unit

A

smallest structure in an organ to perform primary function of that organ

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6
Q

organ system

A

several organs working together to perform a common function

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7
Q

maintaining homeostasis is categorized in..?

A

physiology

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8
Q

disturbed homeostasis is categorized in..?

A

pathophysiology

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9
Q

does steady state require energy?

A

yes

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10
Q

does equilibrium require energy

A

no

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11
Q

what is feed-forward regulation?

A

anticipatory regulation

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12
Q

critical variables

A

regulated/prioritized first in homeostasis

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13
Q

reflex

A

specific, involuntary, unpremeditated, response to particular stimulus (some can be learned though)

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14
Q

neurotransmitter

A

-neuron or effector cell in close proximity to site of neurotransmitter release

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15
Q

main effectors of a reflex

A

muscles and glands

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16
Q

are all reflexes neural?

A

no- some are endocrine

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17
Q

4 kinds of chemical messengers

A
  1. hormone
  2. neurotransmitter
  3. paracrine substance
  4. autocrine substance
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18
Q

hormone

A

target cells in one or more distant places in the body

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19
Q

paracrine substance

A

-local cell
-target cells in close proximity to site of release of paracrine substance

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20
Q

autocrine substance

A

-local cell
-autocrine substance acts on same cell that secreted the substance

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21
Q

membranes

A

-restrict movement of molecules between compartments
-let some things through
-permeability can change
-confine products of chemical rxns to specific organelles

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22
Q

membrane protein types

A

-integral (many transmembrane)
-peripheral (attach to integral)g

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23
Q

glycocalyx

A

-sugar moieties on the extracellular surface of cell (attached to membrane proteins)
-important in cell recognition and immunity

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24
Q

what are there high concentrations of in the membrane

A

-cholesterol
-molecule class called glycosphingoproteins
—-decrease fluidity enough that the proteins in this area are held close together in a lipid raft

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25
Q

what in the membrane tends to lower fluidity

A

cholesterol

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26
Q

lipid rafts

A

-may still float through membrane, but proteins that work together are held closer together
-some lipid rafts have one or more proteins anchored to the cytoskeleton and do not float freely through the membrane

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27
Q

what connects the cell to the extracellular matrix?

A

integrins

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28
Q

desmosomes

A

-disk shaped connection point between cells
-cadherins connect to cytosotic proteins connected to cytoskeleton and to cadherins on adjacent cells
-only a “spot weld”
-connects cell but does not limit paracellular movement
-present on many cells
-firmly attaches cells
-many in areas subject to considerable stretching (ex. skin)

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29
Q

tight junctions

A

-totally circumference the cell
-can restrict movement between cells (paracellular)
-most epithelial cells have tight junctions

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30
Q

gap junctions

A

-connects the cytosol of adjacent cells
-very limited in location (mainly cardiac and some smooth muscle)
-connexins make up
-allows for movement of water, ions, and small molecules, but NOT proteins between cells

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31
Q

what proteins make up the gap junction?

A

connexins

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32
Q

what is associated with everything that occurs in a cell?

A

proteins!

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33
Q

protein binding sites

A

-sites where molecules bind to proteins
-basis for function of many proteins is this ability

34
Q

ligand

A

-molecule that binds to a protein
-binding not covalent, so easily reversible
-ligand binds on binding site

35
Q

ligand binding can be…?

A
  1. ionic- negatively charged groups attracted to positively charged groups on protein/ligand
  2. hydrophobicity- weaker. hydrophobic groups on protein and ligand attracted to each other
36
Q

binding sites proteins contain

A

-multiple binding sites for different ligands
-multiple binding sites for the same ligand

37
Q

what determines if a ligand and binding site can go together?

A

-shape (chemical specificity)
-some binding sites are more specific than others

38
Q

affinity (ligand)

A

-how strongly a ligand can bind to a protein as opposed to releasing it back into the extracellular or intracellular fluid
-depends on shape of ligand/binding site and strength of charge difference between them

39
Q

% saturation

A

-% of available binding sites that are bound by ligand
OR
-% of time a binding site is occupied by ligand
__________________________________________
-depends on ligand concentration, # of binding sites, and affinity

40
Q

how can affinity be measured?

A

the concentration of ligand necessary to occupy 50% of the binding sites (Kd)

41
Q

competition (ligand)

A

-if more than one ligand can bind to a binding site, they will compete
-the ligand with higher concentration and/or affinity will occupy more sites

42
Q

when does covalent modulation occur

A

when enzymes covalently bond a charged group to a protein
-changes shape of protein (increases or decreases affinity of functional sites)
-most commonly added group is phosphate

43
Q

what do kinases add

A

phosphate
-many kinds, each specific for certain proteins

44
Q

what do phosphatases do?

A

remove phosphate, less specific

45
Q

what are kinases and phosphatases subject to?

A

allosteric modulation

46
Q

enzymes

A

-protein catalysts
-not changed by rxn
-orient substrates
-may increase both forward and reverse rxn
-lowers activation E but not energy added or released

47
Q

what do enzymes demonstrate?

A

-chemical specificity
-affinity
-competition
-saturation
-increases rate of rxns that would spontaneously occur

48
Q

cofactors

A

-allosteric modulation
-coenzyme substrate (NADP/NADPH)

49
Q

sites that enzyme has

A

-site of covalent activation
-site of allosteric activation
-site of allosteric inhibition
-site of covalent inhibition

50
Q

diffusion equilibrium has a net flux of….?

A

net flux of zero

51
Q

what does net flux depend on?

A

-concentration difference
-medium
-membrane composition
-temperature
-surface area of membrane
-mass of diffusing substance

52
Q

how to increase diffusion time?

A

-increases in proportion to the square of the distance
-good for short distances

53
Q

ficks diffusion equation

A

J= PA (C0 - Ci)

54
Q

what limits diffusion?

A

hydrophobicity of lipid bilayer

55
Q

are ions polar or nonpolar?

A

-very polar
-low permeability through lipid bilayer

56
Q

ion channels

A

-how ions get through plasma membrane
-transmembrane proteins made up of several subunits
-positive ions go in, negative ions go out

57
Q

what is the term for how ion channels can open/close?

A

gating

58
Q

ligand-gated

A

open when certain ligand is there

59
Q

voltage-gated

A

opens with changes in electrical potential

60
Q

mechanically-gated

A

-respond to mechanical-stress
-several channels for one ion, each regulated differently

61
Q

mediated transport

A

-used to move larger molecules
-move molecules against concentration gradient
-molecule binds to binding site on one side of membrane
-much slower than diffusion
-saturatable

62
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

-no energy required
-multiple transporters for same molecule
-transporters vary in affinity, maximal transport rate, and modulation

63
Q

active transport

A

-move things against gradient
-requires a constant supply of ATP
-2 types: primary and secondary

64
Q

primary active transport

A

-uses ATP to auto-phosphorylate
-phosphorylation causes changes in conformation and affinity

65
Q

secondary active transport

A

-uses concentration gradient generated by ATPase to drive movement
-Na+ is most coupled ion

66
Q

what uses the most ATP in the body

A

NA+/K+ pump (most important protein in a cell)

67
Q

what is important in transport?

A

ATP

68
Q

how many NA are brought out of the cell?

A

3

69
Q

how many K are brought into the cell?

A

2

70
Q

intracellular concentration of Na and K

A

Na- 15
K- 150

71
Q

extracellular concentration of Na and K

A

Na- 145
K- 5

72
Q

other important ATPases

A
  1. Ca++ ATPase
  2. H+ ATPase
  3. H+/K+ ATPase
73
Q

Ca++ ATPase

A

pumps Ca++ out of cytosol into ER, mitochondria, or out of the cell

74
Q

H+ATPase

A

pumps H+ out of cell, into lysosomes, into mitochondria

75
Q

H+/K+ ATPase

A

moves K+ into cell and H+ out
** in stomach, kidney

76
Q

what is it called if ion + transported molecule move in same direction

A

symport, cotransport

77
Q

what is it called if ion + transported molecule move in opposite direction

A

antiport, countertransport

78
Q

osmosis

A

water moving by diffusion

79
Q

what channels does osmosis occur through

A

water channels called aquaporins
-there are many types of aquaporins

80
Q

osmolarity

A

-total solute concentration of a solution
-1 osm = 1 mol of any solute/L solution
-higher osmolarity= lower water concentration

81
Q

what does higher osmolarity do to pressure?

A

higher osmolarity= higher pressure in container

82
Q

osmotic pressure

A

increase in pressure opposes flow of more water into the container

83
Q

normal extracellular osm

A

285-300

A&P (7 decks)

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