Exam 4 - Adolescents (Chapter 8 & 9) Flashcards
1
Q
Puberty
A
The hormonal and physical changes by which children become sexually mature human beings and reach their adult height.
2
Q
Puberty Rites
A
A “coming of age” ritual is held in traditional cultures to celebrate children’s transition to adulthood.
3
Q
Secular trend in puberty
A
A decline in the average age at which children reach puberty.
4
Q
Menarche
A
first menstruation was the signal for celebrating the entrance into womanhood
5
Q
Spermarche
A
male signal of fertility, or first ejaculation of live sperm, is a hidden event
6
Q
HPG Axis
A
The main hormonal system that programs puberty;
- involves a triggering hypothalamic hormone that causes the pituitary to secrete its hormones
- which in turn causes the ovaries and testes to develop
- secrete the hormones that produce the major body changes.
7
Q
Adrenal Androgens
A
Hormones are produced by the adrenal glands that program puberty.
8
Q
Puberty rites usually involve feelings of
A
- anxiety
- awe
- self-efficacy
9
Q
How has the start of puberty changed from the past to today
A
-
Today:
- starts at 9 or 10
-
Past:
- The 1860s: Over 17
- The 1960s: dropped to 13
10
Q
Pregnancy age change
A
in the past girls were not pregnant until their late teens, now before teens
11
Q
Menarche used as a benchmark for
A
charting secular trends
nation’s economic development (SES)
12
Q
Black menstruation pattern
A
US African American girls begin menstruating at: close to age 12
Impoverished African Countries begin at: over 16
13
Q
Puberty programmed by
A
2 command centers
- System 1 - in adrenal glands
- Begins to release hormones at age 6 - 8
- System 2 - HPG axis: Produces major body changes
- Involves hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonads
14
Q
Puberty set off by
A
3 phase chain reaction at Age 9 or 10
- Bursts of hypothalamic hormone stimulate the pituitary gland
- Causes ovaries & testes to secrete several closely related compounds called estrogens and testosterone
- Blood concentrations of estrogens and testosterone float upward and unleash physical transformation
15
Q
Primary Sexual Characteristic
A
Physical changes of puberty directly involve the reproductive organs, such as the growth of the penis and the onset of menstruation.
16
Q
Growth spurt
A
A dramatic increase in height and weight occurs during puberty.
17
Q
Secondary Sexual Characteristic
A
Physical changes of puberty are not directly involved in reproduction, such as female breast development and male facial hair.
18
Q
Testosterone
A
The hormone is responsible for the maturation of the male reproductive organs and other signs of puberty in men, and for hair and skin changes and sexual desire in both sexes.
19
Q
Both girls and boys produce
A
estrogen and testosterone
Mostly Estrogens = females
All Testosterone = male
20
Q
Responsible for sexual arousal in females and males
A
- Testosterone
- Adrenal androgens
21
Q
What primes the triggering hypothalamic hormone?
A
- Genetics
- Exposure to light
- Chemicals in water
- Food
- Environmental stress
- Leptin
- Body fat
22
Q
Weight and puberty delays
A
- Undernutrition = delays puberty
- Obesity = speeds up puberty
23
Q
A dramatic early sign of puberty in girls
A
the growth spurt (speed picks up, then decreases )
24
Q
Breasts and pubic hairs become visible when
A
6 months after the growth spurt begins
25
Menarche occurs
in **middle to final stages** **of breast and pubic hair** development
26
Can girls get **pregnant when reaching menarche**
**yes** - but often **window of infertility** until the system fully gears up.
27
Does **puberty unfold the same way** for every girl?
**No** - hormonal signals complex
28
**Rate of** change **in girls physical changes**
Fully **process** can **range from 2 to 9 years**
29
**Internal** changes in **girls** during **puberty**
1. **Uterus** grows
2. **Vagina** lengthens
3. **Hips** develop a cushion of fat
4. **Vocal cord** longer
5. **Heart** gets bigger
6. Red blood cells carry **more oxygen**
7. **Stimulate ovaries** to produce eggs
30
**External** changes in **girls**
1. **Breasts** grow
2. **Hips** Widened
3. **Body hair** grows
4. **Taller**
31
**After puberty girls** become
more **stronger**
32
**Health-care workers track** the growth of the penis, testicles, and pubic hair by
**5 Tanner Stages**
33
Why do **boys look like children to the outside world** for a year or two after body change
**organs of reproduction** begin developing **first**
34
**After** **growth of** the **testes and penis**
* Voice deepens
* Develops body hair
35
**Growth spurt in boys** during puberty
**average of 8 inches** compared to 4 for girls
36
Why are **boys stronger than girls**
1. The **tremendous increase in muscle mass**
2. Dramatic **cardiovascular changes**
* Heart increase in weight by more than 1/3rd
* More red blood cells
* Greater capacity for carrying oxygen in their blood
37
**External** physical changes in **boys**
1. Big chest
2. Wide shoulders
3. Muscular frame
38
**After puberty males**
**boost in gross motor skills** that give them
39
**Boys** body **growth pattern**
from **feet upward** and from **out of the body to middle**
40
**Boys Crackyl voice produces** by
growing **larynx**
41
Why do **boys have more acne**?
1. Increased **activity of sweat gland**
2. Increased **enlarged pores**
3. Increased **testosterone**
42
Gonads
The **sex organs**
the **ovaries in girls** and the **testes in boys**
43
**Boys appear** to reach **puberty**
**two years later** than girls
They **don’t really** - girls external develop first and **boys internally develop first**
44
The **real sign of fertility** shows **boys hit puberty**
**Puberty hits at 13** about **6 months later** **than** the average age of **menarche**
45
**Sex differences in puberty timetables** can cause
anxiety
46
**Culture** and **puberty** timetables
* **Asian** **Americans** = slightly **behind** others
* **African Africans** & **Hispanics** = **ahead**
47
What **predicts entering puberty earlier for girls**
1. Having a **high BMI during elementary school**
2. **Rapid weight gain** in **first 9 months** of life
3. More apt to **grow up in a mother-headed household**
4. Report **intense childhood stress**
5. Mothers’ **use of power-assertive discipline during preschool**
6. **Prenatal material stress**
48
What **predicts entering puberty earlier for boys**
Nothing
49
*Evolutionary Psychology perspective* of **when family stress** is **intense**
**physiological mechanism** kicks into **acerbate puberty**
**Unhappy childhood** signals the body to **expect short life** and **pushes adult fertility** to younger age
50
Most **important** force **predicting child’s puberty** timetable
genetics
51
**Girls** in the **middle of puberty** told **most negative stories about**
**fathers** - show **body embarrassment at height** while child undergoes physical changes.
52
**Children’s reactions to puberty depend** on
**messages** from the wider **world**
53
People with **upper-middle-class mothers** and **menstruation**
describe **getting period as no big deal**
54
People with **low-income women** and **menstruation**
describe getting period as **feeling “gross, smelly, and disgusting”**
55
Who is **trying** to **change** the **cultural script to menstruation**
**Upper-middle-class** **mothers**
56
When it comes to **spermarche boys need to be**
secretive
57
**Children** typically **view their changing bodies** as
**embarrassing** **around** the **parent** of the **other sex**
58
**Early maturing boys** are **more prone to**
* Negatives:
1. **abuse substances** especially are teen **prone to impulse control**
2. **Depression if prior personality problems** or unhappy family life
* Positives:
* Boosts **popularity**
* Boosts **self-esteem**
59
**Maturing Early** Can Be a
**Problem** for **Girls**
60
**Early-Maturing Girls** Are **At Risk of**
* Developing **Externalizing Problems**
* Getting **Anxious** and **Depressed**
61
**Early-maturing girls gravitate** toward
**older** girls and boy **friend groups**
1. Get **involved in “adult activities”** at younger ages
2. **Worse grades**
62
**Early-maturing girls** in their **20s**
serval times **less likely to graduate** from high-school
63
The main **danger of early-maturing girls**
* Unprotected sex
* teen pregnancy
64
More **likely to experience low self-worth**
Early-maturing girls
In **4th or 5th grad**e =**risk of being bullied by looks**
65
**Early maturing girls size**
**heavier** during **elementary**, **shorter**, and **stockier**
* Poor body image
* Depressed
66
**Late-maturing girls body shape**
**tall ultra-slim** model shape
67
What saves **early maturating girls body image better**
when in **ethnic groups** that have a:
* **healthier**
* more **inclusive ideas about the female body**
68
Sexual Double Standard
A **cultural code** that gives **men greater sexual freedom than women**. Specifically, society expects males to want to have intercourse and expects females to remain virgins until they marry and to be more interested in relationships than in having sex.
69
**Strutted highly protective community** can
**cushion girl** from **acting on behavioral message** her body gives off.
70
**Early-maturing girls** and **school**
special **problems after moving to a large middle school**
71
Thin Ideal
The **media-driven cultural idea** is that **females need to be abnormally thin**.
72
**Children’s reactions to puberty** depend on
the **environment** in which they physically mature
73
With **daily-maturing girls** we **should**
take **social steps to arrange the right body-environment fit**
74
**Communication about puberty should** be
**improved**
especially for boys
75
**Developmentalists urge parents** to
discuss **what is happening with a same-sex child**
76
**Parents of early-maturing daughters** should
try to get the **child involved in positive activities**
77
Importance of **schools on puberty**
* Provide **adequate puberty education**
* Carings schools are **vital to setting young teens on the right path**
78
Pros and cons of **UNESCO global guidelines**
* Pro:
* Aimed at **teaching young children to respect bodies**
* Cons:
* **not often used** - focus on pubertal damage control
79
*Susan Harter* explored
how **feeling competent in each of her five “self-worth” dimensions** related to teens overall self-esteem
80
*Susan Harter* findings
**being happy about one’s looks outweighs anything else** in determining adolescents generally felt good about themselves. (Not true of US teens)
81
Rate of **female teens** with **average BMIs that feel too fat**
3 out of 4
82
**Underweight girls** who **want to shed pounds**
2 out of 5
83
**Boys** typically **want to build**
up their **muscles** and work to **increase body mass**
84
**Body concerns** **take over a child’s life**
at **puberty**
during **early adolescence socially sensitivity**
85
Eating Disorders
A **pathological obsession with getting and staying thin**. The best-known eating disorders are **anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa**.
86
more **like to have eating issues**
1. **Daughters of mothers exposed to intense stress** during pregnancy
2. **Female twin pairs** more than fraternal twin girl and boy pair
87
**Testosterone** **may**
**dampen** a **biological tendency for girls** to become weight obsessed
88
The main **reason of eating issues from the environment**
media
89
*Albert Bandura’s* **social learning framework** showed
**Black and Latino girls** more **insulated from thin ideal**
90
If **ethnic minority girl identifies with mainstream western** thin ideal
likely to **develop eating disorders**
91
Anorexia Nervosa
A potentially **life-threatening** eating disorder characterized by **pathological dieting** (resulting in severe weight loss and, in females, loss of menstruation) and **by a distorted body image**.
92
Bulimia Nervosa
An **eating disorder** characterized by at least **biweekly cycles of binging** and **purging** in an obsessive attempt to lose weight.
93
Binge eating disorder
A newly labeled eating disorder **defined by recurrent, out-of-control binging.**
94
**Anorexia** Nervosa **symptoms**
* Point of reaching **85% of one’s ideal body weight or less**
* **Leptin levels too low** to support adult fertility
* Girl **stops menstruating**
* **Distorted body image**
* **Compulsively excessive**
95
**Rate** of **anorexia**
8 of 1,000
96
People who **drop to 2/3rd of ideal weight**
need to be **hospitalized and fed**
97
**Bulimia Nervosa** can do what to **health**
**seriously compromise health**
* Deficiencies of basic nutrients
* Mouth sores
* Ulcers in esophagus
* Loss of tooth enamel
98
**Binge eating disorder tied** to
**obesity** and **serious threat** to health
99
Binge eating affects
3 in 100 young women
100
**Causes** of **Anorexia and bulimia** have a strong
1. **hereditary** component
2. Shared **genetic** propensities
3. Parents have their **own eating issues** reinforcing the message
4. **Worrying** excessively
5. **Depression**
6. Intense **mood fluctuations**
101
When **temperamentally vulnerable** children are **teased about weight** and **internalize thin ideal**
eating disorders flare-up.
102
Common **eating disorder symptoms**
1. Insecure attachments
2. Extreme need for approval
3. Perfectionists
4. Prone to intensely low self-worth
5. Low self-efficacy
103
**Improving** Teenagers’ **Body Image**
1. **Dialectic behavior therapy** - teaches meditation and promote self-efficacy
2. **Exposing women to video images** of themselves to see real body size
3. Keeping girl’s body temperature warm
4. Training **girl inappropriate amount to eat** via a scale under a plate
104
Over **years # of seniors** who **chose to have sex**
shot up from **minority to more than 70%**
105
**Age 10** (4th grade) - output of **adrenal androgens rise**
When **sexual desire begins**
106
How to **prime initial feelings of desire**
we need **threshold androgen levels** than **signals from environment feedback to heighten sex interest**
107
**Physical changes of puberty** + **How outsiders react to changes** =
uses us into our **lives as sexual human beings**
108
The average **age of 1st intercourse in the US**
**1 in 8** sexual debuts by **age 15**
* Women = 17.8
* Men = 18
109
Factors that **predict earlier transition to intercourse**
* **Biological** - being on an earlier puberty timetable
* **Ethnicity**
* **Socioeconomic** status
* **Personality** -
1. more impulsive
2. externalizing tendencies
3. High risk-taking
4. Low social self-worth
* **Pre-intercourse** activities **at age 12**
* **Less religious** parents
* **Older** partner
* **Peers** choices
* Watching **heavy diet of programs with sexually-oriented** talk
110
**Most US teens** (70% of girls & 56% of boys)
**first sex** with a **steady partner**
**1 in 5** intercourse **outside of the committed relationship**
111
Teens sex with **nonromantic sexual encounters had sex** with
3 of 4 person they knew well
112
**High school** student physically **hurt by a romantic partner**
1 in 10
113
**Middle schooler** that **witnessed violence** among dating peers
1 in 3
114
**Teens today and sexuality**
1. more **confident about the sexual path**
2. Most **occur in committed love relationships**
3. The **Decision to have sex is not taken lightly**
4. Girls are **more in control than society thinks**
115
From **the late 1990s to the early 21st-century teen pregnancy** in the US
dropped more than **5 to 4 per 1,000 girls**
116
“Storm and stress”
**G. Stanley Hall’s phrase for the intense moodiness**, emotional sensitivity, and risk-taking tendencies that characterize the **life stage he labeled adolescence**.
117
Formal Operational Stage
**Jean Piaget’s** fourth and final stage of cognitive development reached at around **age 12** and was characterized by **teenagers’ ability to reason at an abstract**, scientific level.
118
Conventional Thought
In **Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory**, the **intermediate level of moral reasoning**, in which people respond to **ethical issues by discussing the need to uphold social norms**.
119
Post-Conventional Thought
In **Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory**, the **highest level of moral reasoning**, in which people respond to **ethical issues by applying their own moral guidelines** apart from society’s rules.
120
Pre-conventional Thought
In **Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory**, the **lowest level of moral reasoning**, in which people approach **ethical issues by** only considering the **personal punishments or rewards of their actions.**
121
In the **past** **teens** were **seen as**
* hotheaded
* out-of-control
122
*G. Stanley Hall* **life stage** characterized by **“storm and stress”**
adolescent
123
**When** did **adolescence become** a **distinct stage of life in** the **US**
**20th century**
when going to **Highschool became routine** (Baby Boomers)
124
**Adolescents in formal operations** can
* manipulate concepts in their minds
* reason about concepts that may not be real
125
**When** **teens** reach the **formal operational stage what can they do**
1. **Join debate team and argue both sides** - famous for debating everything
2. Comprehend **chemistry**
126
Do all **adolescents reach formal operations**?
**No** mainly in scientifically oriented Western cultures
127
Does cognition ever **change during adolescence in the way Piaget predicts**?
**Yes** - formal operational skills used when teens plan future
128
Developmentalists *Lawrence Kohlberg* view
**during adolescence,** we **develop a moral code** that guides our life.
* Used the **Heinz Dilemma to prove**
129
*Kohlberg’s* **3 levels of moral reasoning**
1. **Preconventional thought**:
* a person operates in a will **I be punished or rewarded mentality**
2. **Conventional thought**:
* Morality centers on the **need to obey society’s rules**
3. **Postconverntional thought**:
* Personal **moral code transcends society’s rules**
130
**Preconventional answers** are **universal** at
age **13**
131
Adolescent Egocentrism
**David Elkind’s** term for the **tendency of young teenagers to feel** that their **actions are at the center of everyone else’s consciousness**.
132
Imaginary Audience
**David Elkind’s** term for the **tendency of young teenagers to feel that everyone is watching** their every action; a component of adolescent egocentrism.
133
Personal Fable
**David Elkind**’s term for **young teenagers’ tendency to believe that their lives are special and heroic**; a component of adolescent egocentrism.
134
**Conventional answers** appear of **most around the world** at
**age 15 or 16** - for many this is the **final stop**
135
**Criticism** of *Kohlberg*
1. Children can go **beyond punishment-and reward mentality**
2. Carol Gilligan - Women’s morality **revolves around concrete caring-oriented criteria**
3. Kohlberg’s scale is **not valid**
4. Way one talks about morality **don't necessarily reflect the behavior**
136
**What produces** the **emotional storm and stress** of teenage life
ability to step back and **see** the **world as it should be rather than it is**
137
*David Elkins* **conclusion on Piaget’s formal operations**
When **children make the transition to formal operational thought at 12**
they **see beneath the surface of adults rules**
138
*Elkind* **why teens** are **sensitive to what others think**
when **attuned to other’s flaws the feelings turn inward** and become obsessed with what others think about their own personal flaws
139
**imaginary audience** and **personal fable** can **lead to**
1. intense **self-consciousness** and **egocentrism**
2. **Personal fables** may **lead to tragic act**s - others can get hurt but not me
140
**Adolescents** usually **hypersensitive to**
other’s **emotions**
## Footnote
Because: **reward region of cortex spike** **when** teens **make risky decisions only when friends watch**
141
**Age of maximum risky-decision** making for **both sexes**
**puberty**
- male danger zone extends through teens
142
**Teens and risk-taking** trends
* **Drugs**: most **don’t** use
* **More** encounters with **police in recent years** - 1 in 6 males arrested by 18
* **Drinking: 2 in 10**
143
When are **people most likely to die of preventable accidents**
**teen years** - especially males
144
Experience-sampling technique
A **research procedure designed to capture moment-to-moment experiences** by having people carry pagers and take notes describing their activities and emotions whenever the signal sounds.
145
Nonsuicidal Self-injury
**Acts of self-mutilation**, such as cutting or burning one’s body, to cope with stress.
146
*Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi* & *Reed Larson* **procedure**
experience-sampling technique
147
**Experience sampling technique** showed
adolescents **live life on the intense emotional plane** but **have a reason**
148
**Most teens emotions** are
**not emotionally disturbed**
149
Most **adolescents around the world and** the **future**
* hopeful
* confident
150
Teens considered **taking their lives**
1 in 6 high school
151
**Teen** who made a **minor suicide attempt**
1 in 12
152
**Nonsuicidal self-injury** rates
worldwide **epidemic**
153
**Self-mutilation episodes rise** from
**intense stress**
cutting can **preserve soil sense of self**
154
**Patterns** of **depression**
* **Women twice** as susceptible to **depression**
* As **Externalizing tendencies** become more **common during adolescence** so does depression rates rising
155
**Depression rates** may **rise** during **adolescence** **because**
**hormonal change** of puberty makes the brain more **sensitive to stress**
156
What **test** can strongly **predict adolescent storms**
executive functions
157
**Examples** of **prior emotion regulation problems** and can **foreshadow adolescent storm**
* **Externalizing tendencies** in elementary school
* Children **rejected**
158
**Examples** of **poor family relationships** that can **predict adolescent storms**
**Alienated from parents -** insecure attachment
159
**Environment factors** and **adolescent storms**
1. Often **repeat what you see** other family and friends do
2. Live in a **disorganized community**
3. **Low-efficacy** community
160
Which **teens** get into **serious trouble**?
* Have prior emotion regulation
* Have poor family relationships
* Live in a risk-taking environment
161
Youth Development Programs
Any **afterschool program** or structured activity outside of the school day that is **devoted to promoting flourishing in teenagers**.
162
Life-Course Difficulties
**Antisocial behavior** that, for a **fraction of adolescents, persists into adult life**.
163
Adolescence-limited turmoil
**Antisocial behavior** that, for **most teens**, is specific to adolescence and **does not persist into adult life**.
164
Zero-tolerance policies
The practice in **U.S. public high schools** of **suspending students after one rule infraction**.
165
School-to-prison pipeline
A term referring to the way **school expulsion may provoke criminal behavior** and incarceration for at-risk teens.
166
When do **teens flourish**
1. When have **superior executive functions**
2. **Parents reinforce** unique strengths
3. A **mother can be vital**
167
**Flourishing** teens and **risk-taking**
can still **engage in risk-taking**
168
Developmentlist **two** distinctions of **derailed adolescents**
1. Adolescence-limited turmoil
2. Life-course difficulties
169
*Laurence Steinberg* **found**
**Puberty heightens** the output of **neurotransmitters** which **provoke passion to take risks**
170
**Advice** to **society and teen risk-taking**
1. **Don’t punish** adolescents as if they were mentally just like adults
2. Pass **laws** that are **user-friendly to teen mind**
3. Provide **group activities** that **capitalize on adolescents’ strengths**
4. Youth **development programs**
5. Change high schools to provide a **better adolescent environment fit**
171
*Robert Epstein* **critique** of the immature adolescent brain
**nature** intended us to **enter adulthood at puberty** parents hold “adults” back from exploring the world
172
*Csikszentmihalyi* and *Larson* found **teens most uplifting experiences are with**
their **families**
**moments** are **rare** though **unhappy emotions outweigh positive** ones 10 to 1
173
**Why** does **family life produce such teenage pain?**
When **parental limiting function gets into high gear** teenage distress becomes acute
174
What do **teens and parents argue about?**
_Everywhere_: **independence** - especially around early teens
_Northern Europe & US_: **academic** issues
_Japanese & Chinese_: **school-related** conflicts
_Middle East_: micromanaging **peer relationships**
_Southern Europe_: **Dependency** & general parent-child acrimony
175
**Parent-adolescent conflict flare up** when
the child is in the **middle of puberty**
## Footnote
An *evolutionary perspective* on **why** - a **hormonal surge of puberty** may **propel struggle for autonomy`**
176
Crowds
A **relatively large teenage peer group.**
177
Immigrant Paradox
The fact that despite living in poverty, going to substandard schools, and not having parents who speak a nation’s language, **immigrant children do far better than we might expect at school**.
178
Cliques
A **small peer group** composed of roughly **six teenagers** who have **similar attitudes and who share activities.**
179
How does the **dance of autonomy unfold**?
becoming **secretive and distant in early teens**
but
**parents** respond by **steadily granting children more freedom** beginning after age 15
180
Why is **mid-to later adolescence** a **crucial period of granting autonomy**?
Parents feel children are **more mature** and child’s **priorities shift from rebelling to constructing adult life**
181
Major **social makers of independence** at 16 or 17
* **eliminate family strain**
* put **distance** between **parents and teens**
182
**Gender difference** in **parent-child** intimacy dance
_Boys_: **Continue secretive** and distance as grow up
_Girls_: After teens **reach out to mothers**
183
**Individualistic societies parent-child adult** relationships
less hierarchical more **like friends**
184
**Immigrant adolescents** impulse to **separate from family** can
provoke **conflict** **relating** to **acculturation**
185
Core **quality** that **makes adolescents feel loved worldwide**
feeling **parents** go out of their way to **do things that are rare and emotionally hard**
186
Developmentalists **2 teen peer group categories**
1. Cliques
2. Crowds
187
**Cliques** and **crowd purpose**
vehicles that **convey teens to relationships** with other sex.
188
**Steps** of **friendships**
At _entry of middle school_ = **unisex** cliques
_Late middle school/early high school_ = **crowds**
_High school_ = **Mixed-sex cliques**
_Emerging adulthood_ = **romantic partners**
189
Ideal **medium** to **bridge gap between sexes**
**crowd**
because there is **safety in numbers**
190
**Adolescence doesn’t exist** for who
* 50 million children displaced from homes in **war-torn**
* **famine-ridden** regions
* **Street children**
* **Females** forced into **sex trade**
* African girls forced into **unwanted marriages at 13**
191
Gangs
A **close-knit, delinquent peer group**. Gangs form mainly in impoverished disorganized communities; they offer their members **protection from harm and engage in a variety of criminal activitie**s.
192
Crowd **functions**
1. Allow teens to **connect with people who share their values**
2. Serve as a roadmap allowing teens to **connect with people of their kind in the overwhelming social world**
193
What plays a **vital role** in **programming defined teenage crowds**
school’s size
194
**Affluent** societies **crowd types**
1. Intellectuals
2. Popular kids
3. Deviants
4. Residual (goth)
195
Being **smart from elementary to high school**
being **smart no longer made you popular** made you **less self-confident**
196
**Children** who ended up **in high school deviant peer groups** were
**unhappy** in **elementary** school as well as **adolescent** years
197
**Why** do **bad crowds cause teens to do bad things**
1. Teens incredibly **swayed by peers** - model antisocial leader
2. When teens **compete for status by getting in trouble this creates wilder antisocial modeling** and propels group towards increasing risky acts
198
**Medium** by which **problem behavior gets solidified**
peer interactions in early adolescent
199
The lure of e**ntering antisocial peer groups is strong for at-risk kids because**
already feel **“it’s me against the world”**
200
**Self-identifying as jock is risk** for
1. abusing alcohol
2. having unprotected sex
