Exam 2 - Chapter 3 & 4 Flashcards
What causes the remarkable changes—from seeing to walking to speaking—that unfold during infancy and toddlerhood?
Answers come from scanning development in that masterpiece structure—the human brain.
What makes the human brain unique
The massive cerebral cortex in fact that it doesn’t reach full development till the 20s
What is essential to fostering babies emerging abilities
- Synaptic loss
- Neural pruning
When babies have a stroke what happens
May end up less impaired than during adulthood due to brain plasticity
Which neural processes incurring in babies, mothers, and grandmothers
Synaptogensis
Cerebral Cortex
the outer, furrowed mantle of the brain, is the site of every conscious perception, action, and thought
Axons
fibers that conduct impulses away from the cell body
Dendrites
treelike, branching ends
Synapses
The gap between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon of another, over which impulses flow.
Myelination
The axons form a fatty layer around their core
Myelin Sheath
The lubricant that permits the neural impulses to speedily flow and which cells thrive
Synaptogenesis
the process of making myriad connections, programs every skill
Cerebral cortex from birth to full development
- Few months after birth = cortex starts taking over behavior
- First, four years of life = brain gets four times bigger in volume
- Two decades = brain fully mature
What happens during the fetal period - year 1 of childhood
- Brain migrates to the top of neural tube
- Cells form axons and sprout dendrite
two Critical transformations and when do they occur
- Synaptogenesis
-
Myelination
- Myelin Sheath - Frontal lobes’ forms into the 20s
- occur at different rates in specific brain areas
Parallels between our unfolding abilities and when
and when our brain matures
Neural loss is important to what and why
- Critical to the development
- Each cortical region undergoes synaptic pruning & neural death
- Necessary to permit essential cells to grow
Why do our brains undergo overproduction followed by cutting back?
- Having an oversupply of connections allows us to “recruit” from this wider pool
- redirect these extra neurons to perform other function
When is the cortex malleable?
malleable during infancy and childhood
What is unique about people born blind and how is it possible
- People born blind, intense activity while reading braille and listening
- How? neurons program for visual provision taken over to strengthen hearing and touch
Brain plasticity highlights
- Basic nature and nurture principal
- Environmental stimulation vital to strengthened pacific neural networks
Basis brain principles
- Development unfolds in its own neurological time
- Simulation scopes neurons (environment affects how our brain works )
- The brain is always under construction
once a child has passed the 5- or 6-month milestone, parents get
agitated if an infant has never permitted them a full night’s sleep
relationship between childhood sleep problems and parents
Bidirectional effect
Children with chronic sleep problems produce irritable, stressed-out parents.
Irritable, stressed-out parents produce childhood problems with sleep
Rooting Reflex
anything touches babies cheek they turn their head in that direction and suck
Grasping
newborns automatically grasp anything that touches their palm
Undernutrition
having a serious lack of adequate food
Stunting
the percentage of children under age 5 in a given region who rank below the fifth percentile in height, according to the norms for their age.
Micronutrient deficiencies
-
Inadequate levels of nutrients such as
- Iron
- Zinc
- Vitamin A — is rampant.
- Can cause Kwashiorkor.
Food Insecure
According to U.S. Department of Agriculture surveys, the number of households that report needing to serve unbalanced meals, worrying about not having enough food at the end of the month, or having to go hungry due to lack of money (latter is severe food insecurity).
Colic
A baby’s frantic, continual crying during the first three months of life
caused by an immature nervous system.
Skin to skin
contact holding a baby close has a clear physiological effect
Kangaroo care
using a baby sling can even help premature infants grow
Self-soothing
put themselves back to sleep when they wake up
REM Sleep
a phase of rapid eye movement, when dreaming is intense and our brain-wave frequencies look virtually identical to when we are in the lightest sleep stage
Co-sleeping
sharing a bed with a child
Sudden infant death syndrome
refers to the unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant, often while sleeping, during the first months of life
Basic Newborn Stages
- Eating: The Basis of Living: Changes from 1 - 2
- Crying: The First Communication Signal
- Sleeping: The Main Newborn State
When do newborn babies suck
All the time + rooting reflex
What doesn’t depend on the cortex
-
Reflexive automatic = don’t depend on the cortex
- Sucking
- Rooting
- Grasping
As Cortex grows what happens, When does sucking stop
- voluntary processes replace reflexes
- Month 4 / 5 = no sucking all the time - now operant conditioning
Developmental change from 1 1/2 - 2 YO
- can eat a few basic foods (apple juice)
- Revolutionary psychologist = this behavior is adaptive sticking to foods babies no reduce risk of poisoning themselves
What do babies face after birth?
Baby faces perils right after birth
- Infectious diseases
- impure food and water - hard to survive beyond age 1
Benefits of breast-feeding now:
- Breastfeeding lifesaver to poor nations - increase infants survival odds
- more resilient to flu
- accelerating myelin formation
- less reactive to stress
- Fewer disruptive behaviors in children genetically at risk
What is wrong with breastfeeding research
Findings involve correlations
does not control from maternal motivations
Barriers that make it difficult to breastfeed?
- Work Demands - lessens motivation to continue
- Physical Pain - It hurts to breastfeed
How long does it take for babies to need solid food?
After 6 months baby need solid food
Chronic inadequate nutrition
compromises every aspect of development and activity of life
The difference in developing world
- Asia, Latin America, and Caribbean = Dramatic decline
- Sub-Saharan Africa & South Asia = 2 in 5 children affected
- Developing world = Micronutrient deficiencies rampant
How does food insecurity and serve food insecurity affect the USA
- USA - more than 1 in 6
- Severe food insecurity = 1 in 11
Programs to fight food insecurity in America
- Food Stamp Program
- Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
- Child & Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)
Crying reaches peak when what is the correlation between cortex and crying
one month after birth
Cortex blooms = crying rates decline
How is Crying is vital to survival, what happens when cry too little or too much
How? cement infant-parent bond & communication
Cried too Little = neurological problem
Cries too much = maybe Colic
Short-lived typically ends after a month 4
Cuddling intervention on baby and parent and why
Cuddling intervention = impact on baby & parent-child bond
Why?: sense of self-efficacy high from leveling baby thrive
Types of cuddling intervention
- Skin-to-skin contact - reduces stress hormone ( cortisol )
- Kangaroo care: hope premature infants grow
- Infant massage: premature infants gain weight, treating toddlers sleep problems
How long do babies sleep for
2 week old babies = sleep 14/24 hours
What happens from 0 to 1 relating to babies sleep pattern
0 - 1YO = sleep patterns adapt to human world
3 month sleep pattern
3 months = sleep shifts towards nighttime hours
6 month sleep pattern
6 months = milestone - six hours a night (start self-soothing)
1 YO sleep pattern
12 hours of night + morning and afternoon nap
2 YO sleep pattern
= no more morning nap
Differences between adult and infant sleep pattern , and when infant sleep pattern changes to adult
Infant sleep different psychologically from adult pattern
Adults = 4 stages - progressively slower brain-wave frequencies, than REM
Infants = immediate REM
Adolescence = start to undergo adult sleep cycle
relationship between irritated parents & childhood sleeping problems
Bidirectional relationship between irritated parents & childhood sleeping problems
Women slept a lot while pregnant = depressed one toddler woke up frequently
Behaviorists view on interventions
Don’t go in and comfort baby
John Bowlby & Erik Erikson view on intervention
: sensitively respond when infant cries
when and how is intervention changed based on research opinion
Month 7/8 = don’t immediately respond to cry baby
“ Settling activities “ correlate with
with sleep difficulties at age 5
3 People against co-sleep
- Individualistic societies - no co-sleeping
- Behaviorists - could produce “ excessive dependency “
- Freudian theorists - could place child at risk for sexual abuse
Person for co-sleep
Collectivist culture - no co-sleep = infant abuse
Most US Women on co-sleep
room share not bed share
SID chances
: 1 in 1,000 US babies - top-ranking cause of infant mortality in developed world
Cause of SID biological and post birth environment
Cause: Abnormalities in particular brain regions -
Biological
too much or few neurons in part of brain that controls tongue movement
pathologies producing cerebrospinal fluid
Post birth environmental causes
Inadvertently smothered, by face down in crib
Back to sleep campaign - worked 1992 - 1997 SID death 43% reduction
Preferential-looking paradigm
is the principle that human beings are attracted to novelty and look selectively at new things
Habituation
the fact that we naturally lose interest in a new object after some time
Face Perception
making sense of human faces
Fear Bias
hypersensitivity to facial expressions of fear built into our species to keep us safe from harm
Cortical Pruning
the fact that unneeded synapses in our visual system atrophy, or are lost
What helped to reduce SiD cases from 1992 to 1997
Back to sleep campaign - worked 1992 - 1997 SID death 43% reduction
When do sense become operational and how do we know this
Sense operational before we leave womb - ultrasound shows hearing capabilities before birth
What do researchers use to prove newborns can see
Researcher use Preferential-looking paradigm and habituation
What study was done to see if newborns could see and what were the results
Show newborn small and large stripe patterns = ability to see clearly at birth is poor
Visual activity score - 20/400
How quick does the visual cortex mature
Visual cortex matures quickly = About age 1 infants see like adults
William James view on newborn life,what was his reasoning and what was the other side
inner life of newborn as” buzzing, blooming confusion “ Proof - Studies of face perception
Why wrong: we have builtin antenna to tune into human world
What are two things newborns like to see and what does it prove
Newborns can make amazing distinctions
like to look:
at mother than strangers
attractive people - 61% of time
overtime what happens to face preferences
Face preferences sharpen over time
Face preferences at 2 months
: look at speaking faces
Face preferences at 4 months:
gravitate to visually captivating images
Face preferences at 8 months
like looking at fearful expressions = fear bias
Face preferences at 9 months why is this unique
less sensitive to facial differences in other ethic groups
Cortical pruning
Baabies arround different ethic groups
less sensitive at picking up facial expressions of people from other races
When happenes when young people view forgien faces
Spike in Amygdala (fear center ) when young people view foreign faces
What may help people become more tolerant, and why
Being born in multicultural cities. Why? experience prewires us visually to be more sensitive to the feelings of other races
What was Elinor Gibson’s invention and why did they make it
Elinor Gibson: developed visual cliff to find out when babies develop depth perception
Depth Perception
the ability to “see” variations in heights
What results were found in the study of depth perception
Results: 8 month olds form depth perception only when infants begin to crawl
Visual Cliff
A table that appears to “end” in a drop-off at its midpoint; used to test infant depth perception.
Motor Milestone
the exciting progression of physical abilities during the first year of life
Cephalocaudal
head to toe
Proimodistal
inner to outer
Mass-to-specific
Hands then finger
Bodies grow how much from infancy to adulthood
21 times their newborn size by adulthood
Body’s growth pattern
Infancy = Dramatic Childhood = slow down Preadolescent = Speeds back up
How does body and head change as we grow
Body elongates and thins out, head shape an size small difference
Newborns tiny frog like legs straighten by month 6 (bowlegged)
Childhood growth cephalacaudal (head to toe)
What are 3 principles on programming for motor milestone
Cephalocaudal = Baby lifts head, pivot upper body, stand proximodistal = control shoulders before make fingers obey commands Mass-to-specifc = most important principle on programming
what happens as Neuron myelinate
big, uncoordinated movements perfected as children grow
How do researchers view development
Researchers view development as variability and ingenuity of babies passions to get moving in life
Creeping
when a baby can only move backward and you find him huddled in the corner in pursuit of objects that get farther way
Baby-proof
Making the home safe for a newly mobile infant.
During Creeping or belly-crawling stage what may happen
babies may take first step then start crawling again
Researchers view development
as variability and ingenuity of babies passions to get moving in life
Children with developmental disorder and infant mobility
doesn’t master motor milestones in average time
No relation between motor milestones and later intelligence
Landmark event = reaching,
makes baby want to interact with everything
What changes parent-child bond and how
Crawling changes parent-child bond: Babies mobiles = basic child-rearing agenda emerges
Motor development present perils
safety now concern
Baby-proof Strive for person-evironment fit
How to baby-proof
get on floor and look from perspective of child
Downside of motor milestone
when baby’s can reach dangerous things
Three-month-old peaks up when vacuum starts then loses interest. You are using a kind of ___ paradigm, and the scientific term for when your baby loses interest is ____
Preferential – looking paradigm and habituation
In the first year of life, how does vision improved and worsen
In the first year of life babies develop a remarkable sense of facial nuances but nine months we have unlearned the ability to become as sensitive to facial distinctions in people of other ethnic groups
An implication of the face perception studies is that the roots of adult prejudice begins
During the second six months of life
If an eight-month-old is participate in a visual cliff study, when she approaches the drop, she should
Be frightened of the cliff
walking schema
habitual way of physically navigating
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage:
0-2, goal to make sense of physical reality by exploring world with senses
assimilate
fit the outer world to what they are capable of doing
As babies assimilate what do they do
accommodate and so gradually mentally advance.
“everything into the mouth” schema
1 YO - assimilate everything to their mouthing schema—they realize that objects have different characteristics
Through continual assimilation and accommodation, by age 2, babies
make a dramatic mental leap—from relying on reflexes to reasoning and using symbolic thought.
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to age 2, when babies’ agenda is to pin down the basics of physical reality.
Primary Circular reactions
In Piaget’s framework, the first infant habits during the sensorimotor stage, centered on the body.
Circular reactions
habits, or action-oriented schemas, the child repeats again and again
Deferred imitation
Repeating an action that the baby witnessed at an earlier time
Secondary Circular Reactions
In Piaget’s framework, habits of the sensorimotor stage lasting from about 4 months of age to the baby’s first birthday, centered on exploring the external world.
Means-end behavior
when the child is able to perform a separate, or different, action to get to a goal.
Tertiary Circular reactions
In Piaget’s framework, “little-scientist” activities of the sensorimotor stage, beginning around age 1, involving flexibly exploring the properties of objects.
Means-end behavior
when the child is able to perform a separate, or different, action to get to a goal.
Object Permanence
knowing that objects exist when we no longer see them
A-not-B error
In Piaget’s framework, a classic mistake made by infants in the sensorimotor stage, whereby babies approaching age 1 go back to the original hiding place to look for an object even though they have seen it get hidden in a second place.
Little-scientist/ “getting into everything” phase
The time around age 1 when babies use tertiary circular reactions to actively explore the properties of objects, experimenting with them like scientists.
Circular reaction
drive advances in stages
What develops from months 1- 4
Primary circular reactions:
Sucking thumb
Waving legs captivates 3-month-old
Sucking thumb
Waving legs captivates 3-month-old, are what type of reactions
primary circular
What develops at four months
Secondary circular reactions
Cortex blossoms & child begins to reach =
action-oriented schemas become centered on outside world
What develops eight months
babies can simultaneously use both circular reactions - through grasping and kicking
What circular reaction happens at 1 YO what is an example of this
tertiary circular reactions
Throwing paper and balls in toilet bowl
Importance of circular reactions in infants?
Infancy about insatiable drive to repeat interesting actions
Allows infants to pin down basic properties of world
Hallmark of thinking
deferred imitation
Signs of reasoning
- Make-believe play
- Means-end behavior
Object permanence is fundamental and how does it develop
to sense of living in stable world
Develops gradually throughout sensorimotor stage
Piaget on object permanence
during early infancy life = series of disappearing images
When secondary circular reactions flow
object permanence slightly forms
by Month 9 - 10 what error of object permanence occurs
A-not-B error occurs
when does object permanence fully emerged
2 years old
Emerging object permanence explains
puzzles about development and offers perspective on why younger babies are calm when remove an interesting object but become possessive by second year of life
What causes terrible twos:
cognitive skills of knowing object still exists when taken away
Object permanence + means–end behavior =
explains why one year olds first dollar bills down toilet
When do toys become interesting and what do they show
Toys become interesting when babies realize they are different from real life
Shows child is making transition from sensory motor period To symbolic thought
what transformed the way psychologists think about childhood
Piget
What was wrong with Piget theory and why
timing off, did not have strategies, like preferential looking and habituation
What are 2 critiques of Piaget’s theroy
- Infants grasp basics of physical reality well before age 1
- Infants’ understanding of physical reality develops gradually
How did Developmentalists Renée Baillargeon prove the fact infants grasp basics of physical reality before age 1
Presented young babies with physically impossible event - babies as young as 5 months looked astonished
What does research show in regards to infants understanding of physical realities developing gradually
Research show: takes until 1 YO for babies to master fundamental realities
Explains why magic becomes interesting at 2-3
Contemporary researchers decode
step by step how cognition gradually emerges
during their second six months on this planet, babies can
can decode intentions—inferring underlying motivations from the way people behave
what does decoding intentions lead to
language, communicating our thoughts through words.
Information-processing researchers and psychologists who use this approach do what
use metaphor of computer w/ separate processing steps to decode human’s intellectual skills
Psychologist using approach = isolate talents involved in milestone and chart how each skill develops
Darren repeatedly opening and closing a cabinet door is an example of
Circular reactions
Jai pulls out the locked door you watch then manages to unlock a door
means-end behavior
Hide bear from Sam, Sam throws open the lid of the box and scoops out there
Object permanence
When would a child understand another person is being mean
months before age 1
Martina, a 16-month-old baby who, days after seeing another child have a temper tantrum demonstrates the same behavior, shows _____.
deferred intimiation
Gia’s mother hides a rattle under a blue blanket, has her find it a few times, and then hides the rattle under a pink blanket. Gia proceeds to look for the rattle under the blue blanket. Gia is showing _____ and is probably _____ old.
the A-not-B error; 10 to 12 months
When did Piaget believe sensorimotor period end, and why
that language signals the end of the sensorimotor period because this ability requires understanding that a symbol stands for something else
Babies who demonstrate pointing preference at an early age - 10 months have
have larger later vocabularies because right-hand pointing is a general tip-off showing that the left-brain language centers are coming on-line
Do babies whoes parents use IDS learn faster
more IDS communications have babies who speak at a younger age
our main agenda and what we use to achieve it
is to connect with the human world
from language to face perception to social cognition
Essential property of language
= elasticity
Noam Chomsky theory and who inspired it
humans are biologically programmed to make “language” by language acquisition derive (LAD)
Based on B.F. Skinner ’s nurture-oriented principle that we learn through reinforcement
B.F. Skinner,what depends on environment
the way our genetic program for making language gets expressed depends on environment
Developmentalists adopt
social-interactionist perspective
Language occurs in stages what are the first 4 from newborn to 1 YO
Newborn: reflexive crying
Month 4: cooing
Month 6: babbling
Month 11: 1st word
Holophrase stage:
1st one-word sentence - one word, accompanied by gestures, to Geta full sentence or thought out
Babbling
alternating consonant and vowel sounds, such as “da da da,” that infants playfully repeat with variations of intonation and pitch
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky’s term for a hypothetical brain structure that enables our species to learn and produce language.
Grammar
The rules and word-arranging systems that every human language employs to communicate meaning.
Telegraphic speech
First stage of combining words in which a toddler pares down a sentence to its essential words..
Infant directed speech
The rules and word-arranging systems that every human language employs to communicate meaning.
Childrens first 50 words center on
important items in their world
At what age does vocabulary explosion occur
From 1 1/2 to 2
What are developmentalists passionate in
tracing language to its roots
What sounds do newborns gravitate to, at what age does this change
Newborn gravitate to sounds of living things
Month 3: peak up to only human speech
What is unique about 8-month-olds ability to hear sounds
Month 8 infant lose ability to hear sound tones in different languages
What is unique about toddlers ability to hear sounds
Toddlers can hear difference between similar sounds and link them to objects after hearing connection once
How do caregivers promote language achievements
Caregivers promote language achievements by talking to babies: infant-directed speech
IDS (Infant-direct speech) promotes
emerging language -Babies & adults identify words better in IDS
Neurological roots of language appear months before speech understanding shown what
shown by link between brain development at 7 months and 1YO speech understanding
Observable sign of soon-to-emerge language
pointing with right hand
Identify the theoretical perspective reflected in: we learn to speak by getting reinforces for saying what we want
Skinner’s operant conditioning
Identify the theoretical perspective reflected in: We are biologically programmed to learn a language
Chomsky
Identify the theoretical perspective reflected in Babies are passionate communicate
Social-interactionist perspective
Identify probable language stage: 4 months old
cooing
Identify probable language stage: 7 months old
babbling
Identify probable language stage: 2 years old
Telegraphic speech
Identify probable language stage: 1-year-old
holophrases - one word stage
How did developmentalist’s opinion on attachment change during the 20th century
Early 20th century: thought babies wanted to be close to mom because “ maternal reinforcement stimulus “ was required by providing food
Late 20th century: Attachment front burner in developmental science
How did U.S psychologists view on attachment theory differ from European and why
U.S. psychologist: indifferent to intense connections of love - dominated by behaviorism
European Psychoanalysts: Attachment crucial to infant life
Who was John Watson and what was his view on attachment
Early US behavioral who was hostile to mother love
What did Ethologist discover, which Ethologist added evidence to this discovery
Ethologists: found every species biologically programmed to attachment Konroad Lorenz - raised geese, they thought of him as dad
Psychologist Harry Harlow was important to the changing view of US attachment how
convicted US their attachment theory was wrong
Study: Monkeys cloth and wire “moms” - monkeys preferred cloth
Effects on motherless monkeys: unable to have sex, frightened of peers, uncaring abusive parents
In the late 1960s, what did John Bowlby discover
No such thing as excessive mother love = Orphanage findings + Lorenz’s ethological studies + Harlow’s research + clinical work
Primary attachment figure = crucial to the development
Primary attachment figures
The closest person in a child’s or adult’s life.
why 8-month-old infants suddenly become sensitive to fearful faces
Fear bias kicks in when we start to move in the world, stay near parents
the human critical period for attachment unfolds when
- 1st becomes mobile
- most in danger of getting hurt
Does a baby’s biology (nature) evoke insensitive caregiving and then insecure infant attachments?
yes —given the bidirectional nature of relationships
How do genetic play a role in caregiving styles
children seem genetically immune to less sensitive caregiving
Was Bowlby right about long term effects of attachment
We are not destined to have lifelong problems if we suffered from inadequate caregiving early in life.
two important social contexts of early childhood:
poverty and day care.
Bowlby - crucial value of attachment based on
evolutionary theory
When is the critical period
Critical period (0-2) when attachment response comes out - built into survival
Proximity-seeking behavior
our need to make contact with an attachment figure—is activated when our survival is threatened at any age
Preattachment Phase
The first phase of John Bowlby’s developmental attachment sequence, during the first three months of life, when infants show no visible signs of attachment.
Social Smile
The first real smile, occurring at about 2 months of age. doesn’t show true attachment, reflex that evokes care from adults
Attachment in the making
Second phase of Bowlby’s attachment sequence, when, from 4 to 7 months of age, babies slightly prefer the primary caregiver, but trilled by anyone
Separation anxiety
When a baby gets upset as a primary caregiver departs.
Stranger anxiety
Beginning at about 7 months, when a baby grows wary of people other than a caregiver.
Strange Situation
Procedure to measure attachment at age 1, involving separations and reunions with a caregiver.
Clear-cut (or focused) attachment
Critical attachment phase, from 7 months through toddlerhood, defined by the need to have a primary caregiver nearby. Full-blown attachment response
Social Referencing
scientific term for this regular checking-back, helps alert toddlers to which situations are dangerous and which are safe.
Working Model
In Bowlby’s theory, the mental representation of a caregiver that enables children over age 3 to be physically apart from the caregiver.
Avoidant
An insecure attachment style characterized by a child’s indifference to a primary caregiver at being reunited after separation.
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
An insecure attachment style characterized by a child’s intense distress when reunited with a primary caregiver after separation.
Disorganized attachment
An insecure attachment style characterized by responses such as freezing or fear when a child is reunited with the primary caregiver in the Strange Situation.
“Dancing potential”
sensitivity to a baby’s signals, produces secure attachments
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
An insecure attachment style characterized by a child’s intense distress when reunited with a primary caregiver after separation.
Insecurely Attached
Deviation from the normally joyful response of being reunited with a primary caregiver, signaling problems in the caregiver–child relationship.
Securely Attached
Ideal attachment response when a child responds with joy at being reunited with a primary caregiver.
Temperament
characteristic, inborn behavioral styles of approaching the world
Disorganized Attachment
This erratic, confused infant response is a risk factor for “acting-out issues” (aggression, disobedience, trouble controlling one’s behavior) as children travel through elementary school.
Oxytocin
the attachment hormone because this chemical elicits bonding, caregiving, and nurturing in other mammals and human beings
Dose-response effect
meaning that the intensity (dose) of deprivation predicts the impact on (response of ) a given child.
When is Proximity-seeking behavior actived and the 2 threats to survival
activated when survival is threatened at any age
Two categories of threat to survival
Activated by our internal state
Evoked by wider-world dangers
During infancy & toddlerhood what is important in attachment
being physically apart causes distress
who made Attachment Milestones
Bowlby
What are the 3 attachment milestones
Preattchment phase
Attachment in the making
Clear-cut (or focused) attachment
When does preattachment phase occur and what is happening
Preattachment phase (First 3 months) - reflex-dominate time, infant not wake to world Social smile (2 months old) - parent child relationship on different plane
When does attachment in the making phase occur and what is happening
Attachment in the making (4 months old) - transitional period,
Piaget’s environment focused on secondary circular reactions unfolding
Cortex coming online
When does clear-cut (or focused) attachment occur and what is happening
Clear-cut (or focused) attachment (7-8 months old)
Object permanence forming
Baby proofing stage: Crawling & Reaching
What signals beginning of clear-cut (or focused) attachment
Separation anxiety & stranger anxiety
When does separation anxiety and strange anxiety reach its peak how does it relate to social referencing
Separation anxiety & stranger anxiety reach a peak between 1 & 2 YO
Social referencing - Zone of optimum comfort = about 200 ft
What signals end of clear-cut or focused attachment
Turned three years old have skills to carry a working model
When is Baby’s critical period for attachment
First becomes mobile and most in danger of getting hurt
Who studied attachment styles what did they use
Studied by Mary Ainsworth using Strange situation
What was strange situation study affect on developmentalists
Developmental us categorize infants as securely or insecurely attached
Securely attached babies during strange situation
Mom leaves, mayor may not be distressed mom returned babies eyes light up with joy
What are the three types of insecurely attached babies
- Avoidant
- disorganized attachment
- anxious ambivalent attachment
What is developmentalist belief of insecure attachment
Don’t show weakness and underlying connection
In the attachment dance parents and babies
Or alerts each other signals
Synchrony
model for romantic love from attachment dance
Ainsworth & Bowlby “dancing potential “ leads to
secure attachments
Sensitive caregivers =
Securely attached Baby
What is one main factor of an infant attachment degree what may interfere
mirror of Mum’s - Women with happy childhood have securely attached babies
Dad may interfere with child’s attachment
Do babies different temperament
Yes it’s a genetic trait
Developmentalists middle class babies temperamental styles:
Easy = rhythmic eating and sleeping patterns, happy & easily soothed
Slow to warm up = more wary babies
Difficult (1 in 10) = hypersensitive, agitated, reactive to every sight & sound
Temperament babies =
less loving caregiving (especially when mom is anxious & depressed)
bidirectional relationship
What do women’s attachment to Baby depend on
Women’s attachment to Baby depends on part on partners bonding style
How do marital problems and being a single parent affect a woman’s attachment to a baby
Marital problems = hard to relate to an infant in a lovingly way
Single parents = having other caring attachments critical to providing sensitive care
Dance of attachment depends on
having supportive wider world
Criticism of Bowlby and Answorth
“mothers solely responsible for promoting secure attachments” taking an excessively limited view
Do babies around the world have different attachment periods , What is the rate of securely attached babies
Babies around world get attached to primary care caregiver at same age
Securely attached babies = 60% - 70% 2-3rd
how Efé (communal hunter-gatherer people in Africa) unique
babies breast-feed from any woman but still have primary attachment to mother
when Babies upset
runs to person most time spent with even if insecurely attached to that adult
Security seeking response evoked by
amount of hands on caregiving, not quality
15-month-olds that were “double insecure”
behavior problems in 3rd grade
Children securely attached to only one parent
protected from poor mental health
Bowlby working model concept showed
attachment relationships during infancy lead to how relate to other people and feel about ourselves
Avoidant and ambivalent babies in social situations
Avoidant baby = aloof to friends and teachers
Ambivalent infant = needy in relationships
Secure babies in social situation vs insecure
Secure babies = succeed socially,
insecure = trouble managing emotions & interpersonal difficulties
most potent predictor of problem
Disorganized attachment style
Programs that train mothers to be responsive caregivers
= block pathway from infant disordered attachment to disruptive preschool behaviors
At every stage of childhood
At every stage of childhood = baby could transform from insecure to secure
People who changed in attachment status
specific variant of gene involved in producing oxytocin
Less environment-responsive genetic profile =
stable in attachment
Romanian orphanage, what effected rate of problems
Damage evident if adoption occurs after six months
Socially separating but satisfy basic health needs - cut off point for deficits close to 18 months
(Bowlby) Zone of attachment is
sensitive period for receiving caregiving = 7-18 months
Longer child stays in orphanage + care of institution =
risk of enduring problems :Does-response effect
“Institutionalization syndrome” symptoms and who is most likely to get them
more likely in boys
Reactive attachment disorder = indiscriminate friendliness
Lack of ability to focus attention - lack of stimulation delays maturation of brain
quality of attachment during infancy =
foundation for healthy development throughout life.
Attachment capabilities and human brains is
malleable
A negative path can be altered if deprivation is not too profound
Example of proximity-seeking in distress
called mom when got fired
phase of attachment for: 1 month old
Preattachment
phase of attachment for: 5 month old
Attachment in the making
phase of attachment for: 1 year old
Clear-cut attachment
phase of attachment for: 4 year old
Working model
One year old shows no emotion when mom leaves room, and in different one returns. What attachment style is this
avoidant
Someone adopting a two-year-old from an orphanage in Haiti may have what issues and how can they be fix
- Difficulty focusing
- indiscriminate friendliness
- If boy - special trouble developing secure attachment
BUT can be muted with loving care
A child who is 1-2 1/2 (12-30) months old is in a transitional life stage called _____.
Toddlerhood
Eleven-year-old Danny has difficulty making friends. His impulsive outbursts cause other children to avoid him. Danny’s mother has alcohol problems and has spent very little time with him. Child Protective Services has intervened from time to time and placed him in temporary foster homes when her drinking became severe. Danny is MOST likely to have had a(n) _____ attachment style as a baby.
disorganized attachment
economic disadvantage is often
the price of starting families during the very time young people are supposed to marry and give birth
In 2014 how many children under 6 were below the poverty line
How does this change including low income familes
2014: 1 in 4 children under 6 = below poverty line
+ “Low-income” families = now 1 in 2
Low income families
those earning within 2 times the official poverty cutoff
Over the past 40years how has childhood poverty changed and what is one cause
young children are likely to live in poverty - gap in family “enrichment expenditures” has widened
Cause? Single motherhood
2013: 1 in 4 US men 25-34 = salaries below $12 / hour
What does poverty affect in children and mothers
Poverty affects children’s physiology
children and mother = high levels of cortisol (stress hormone)
Poverty most impacts what and how does being poor from 0-1 affect life
education = dose-response effect
Poor during 1st year of life = dramatically lower odds of graduating Highschool
Depth of deprivation and its timing matters
Why is poverty impact on education so great
Parents can’t afford to provide brain stimulating activities
Technology + rising income inequalities = disadvantaged children
What makes poverty and education situations worse
Crowded, dilapidated housing
Having to move repeatedly
High-crime neighborhood
Cognitive impact evident - what study shows this
before children can walk
low-SES 6-month-old babies tracking visual stimuli performed worse
Two government programs for giving disadvantaged children and in intellectual and social boost
Head Start:
Early Head Start:
Head Start
Main goverment sponsored early childhood program - A federal program offering high-quality day care at a center and other services to help preschoolers aged 3 to 5 from low-income families prepare for school.
1965 President Lyndon Johnson as part of Great Society effort to reduce poverty
Early Head Start
A federal program that provides counseling and other services to low-income parents and children under age 3.
Two early childhood schooling and effects
High-quality preschool: difference in every child life
Day care: lifeline for babies in disorganized, chaotic homes
More hours per week poverty level kids spend in daycare = lower cortisol rates
Pros and cons to interventions of poverty and childhood
Pros:
Programs for training poor moms to respond sensitively to babies = promote secure attachment
Cons:
underfunded - dont know when ends
Can’t erase impact of substandard elementary and chaotic home
Recipe for loving care for impoverished moms and what is it’s effect
Secure attachment to caregiver + optimistic attitude = can offer child loving care which leads to further child success
How does childcare affect us mom’s vs European moms
3 in 5 US mothers: return to work during babies first year
Childcare $1,000 / month = keep childcare in family
European mothers: free childcare birthright
Paid childcare options
Higher nanny or babysitter
Family daycare
Licensed day-care centers:
What is a growing type of childcare - what is the ratio of preschoolers to infants & toddlers
late 20th century = 1 in 2 preschoolers attend
1 in 5 infants and toddlers attend
In 1989 what was created to study the effects of the mother’s going back to work leaving children at home
Developmentalists began National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care
What was the NICHD study of early child care
Longitudinal study measuring attachment, academic abilities, caregiving skills, and mental heath
What was the results of the NICHD study of early child care and one criticism
Results: correlations weak
Doesn’t weaken attachment bond
Middle-class toddlers = elevated cortisol level when attend full-time daycare
Long hours spent in day care = higher risk of “acting out issues”
Child care quality in US
U.S. day care varies dramatically in quality
The essence of quality daycare =
attachment relationship between caretakers and children
Sensitive caregiver = securely attached
recipe of Affective caregiver and qualities :
Group size + lower child-teacher ratio = best
Patient
caring
empathetic
child-centered
Relate to a child in One to One Way
Excellent childcare facilities feature what
- Predictable comforting routines - stimulate children cognitively and socially
- Toddlers must feel confident a familiar person is providing care
Why are daycare centers at risk of providing inadequate care?
When caregivers have minimally adequate wages + paid time-off = toddlers happier & better behaved
caregivers Need freedom to make all decisions for well-being
What factors play in choosing the best place for a kid
Low staff turnover
Predictable daily routine
Caregivers offer stimulation, empathy, & clear rules
Besides the environment what affects the best place for child care
Consider child’s biology
Environment-responsive genetic babies = flourish in top program
during our second year on this planet, what agendas make us human first emerge:
- We need to be closely connected,
- we want to be free, autonomous selves.
Shame & Doubt
Erikson’s second psychosocial task, refer to the situation in which a toddler’s drive for autonomy is not fulfilled.
Self-conscious emotions
Feelings of pride, shame, or guilt, which first emerge around age 2 and show the capacity to reflect on the self.
Autonomy
Erikson’s second psychosocial task, when toddlers confront the challenge of understanding that they are separate individuals.
At year 2 what phase are we entering
we need to be closely connected + want to be free
What is one good and bad about age 2 autonomy
Good - feels when forming 1st sentence
Bad - not-so-pleasent meltdowns “ terrible twos “
1 in 3 parents had kids with terrible two phase
why is Shame & doubt important
vital to shedding babyhood & entering the human world
What is an age 2 milestone in emotions that changed for year 1
Self-conscious emotions - age 2 milestone
Shift of emotions: from year 1 - joy, fear, & anger to year 2 pride and shame
what is a Gift of being human and when does it start
capable of self-reflection (starts between 2-3)
what is vital to socialization
Shame & pride
Developmentalists surveyed middle-class parents are change of discipline and 14 month old child versus two-year-old results:
Younger toddlers rules centered on safety, while 2 year old centered on how to act
Early conscience improves
dramatically from 2 to 4 YO
Conscience
the ability to adopt internal standards for our behavior, or have that little voice inside us that says, “Even though I want to do this, it’s wrong”
Socialization
being taught to live in the human community.
Differences in self-control caused by
What can help a child from immediately lashing out
Differences in self-control = genetically rooted + parenting
Labeling child’s emotions can help child manage disappointment with immediate lashing out
When does a dad’s influence on socializing matter
Dad influence weighs heavily in socializing children at older ages
What temperamental traits provoke early compliance?
Fear
How do researchers measure toddler temperaments?
design situations tailored to elicit fear, anger, and joy and then observe how toddlers act
Toddlers at high end of fearless, joyous, and angry =
less “morality” at 4.
Psychologist Jerome Kagan study and results
longitudinal studies following toddlers w/ shy temperaments
1 in 5 middle-class European American toddlers inhibited
Is intense shyness genetic what could be the signs
Intense shyness moderately genetic and see clues at early age
4 months: inhibited toddlers cry a lot
8-9 months: special trouble ignoring distracting stimuli
Inhibited toddlers through childhood and teen years
fearful throughout childhood, over-focus on treating stimuli in teens
Kagan brain scan: more activity in part of brain that codes negative emotions when shown a stranger’s face on screen
Many anxious toddlers -
get less inhibited as move into elementary and teens
How to Socialize a Shy Baby
Be caring but provide a gentle push - expose to supportive new social situations like family daycare
What do many parents do to try to socialize a shy child how does it fail
Many parents: “ treat ‘em like glass approach” - more wariness later
What do many parents do to try to raise a rambunctious toddler how does it fail
Many parents: Use power assertion, or give up - counterproductive
Parents who give screaming and hitting low mark - often resort to power assertion techniques
What works on raising a rambunctious toddler . What is an all-purpose socializer
2-year-old whines = reasoning and emotion coaching most effective
Disruptive behavior = firm limits, like immediate time-out
All-purpose socializer = secure attachment
Difficult infants more likely
to have problems with teachers and peers
Goodness of fit
An ideal parenting strategy that involves arranging children’s environments to suit their temperaments, minimizing their vulnerabilities and accentuating their strengths.
The benefits of goodness of fit
- allowed for difficult infants to shine
Kept environment calm
Children are genetically predisposed to be highly responsive or relatively immune to environmental events
Highly reactive babies = may change to difficult, because don’t like changes
Environment-responsive children in nurturing environment - performed better than laid-back peers
With right person-environment fit
a child could succeed - stop labeling
When is confrontation strong
strong during 2 YO
The impulse to help, comfort, & share blossoms during what phase
toddlerhood
MOST babies who attend day care:
are securely attached to their parents.
Which of the following is NOT a typical behavior of toddlers?
patience
What best describes 21st-century global trends in undernutrition and stunting
Decreasing in recent decades, but still unexpectedly high in developing world
Six-month-old Nester adores his electronic baby seat and spends hours bouncing his legs hard to see the lights flashing on and off. Nesters behaviors examples of
A secondary circular reaction
the brain changes that program humans unfolding skills are
- Snaptogenesis
- Myelination
During the little scientist phase, babies engage in
tertiary circular reactions
Who is most likely to breast-feed
People in Norway
as babies get older they lose the
Ability to hear sound tones in very different languages
If the axons in Ruth’s visual cortex have not yet fully myelinated, Ruth is
Less than 1 year old
A young child who lives in poverty is most likely to be emotionally insulated by
Having an optimistic loving parent
2 year old is a real handful. He just can’t sit still. How was the child most likely to react at four years old when he has preschool teacher asked the class to sit quietly during storytime
He will still have more trouble than other children obeying the teacher
Sasha is a toddler. Sasha is
1 - 2 1/2 years old
Francesca and her husband have adopted a child from an Eastern European orphanage. Which is a suggestion made based on the related research
The child is at risk of having a reactive attachment disorder
which young child is most likely obey the rule don’t touch this toy until dinner
Harry an anxious child of age four
dr. out of date is an old-style behaviorist. How do you explain one-year-old ned’s efforts to be close to his mother at all time
This child has a unique emotional bond with his mother
