exam 4 Flashcards
social psychologists
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
fundamental attribution error
tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
attitude
feelings influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
attitudes affect actions and actions affect attitudes.
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues. this method doesnt engage in systematic thinking but it does produce fast results
ex: people are persuaded to make the snap judgement to buy a product when it is endorsed by a celebrity.
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue.
this method is more thoughtful, less superficial, and more durable.
ex: advertising a car by its best features
foot in the door phenomenon
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. shows that actions can affect your attitude because in some circumstances doing becomes believing.
“fake it until you make it”
role
set of expectations about a social position defining how those in the position ought to behave
cognitive dissonance theory
acting to reduce the discomfort(dissonance) we feel when our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. ex:
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informational social influence
influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality
Stanley Milgram
performed experiments to study obedience in social psychology
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others
social loafing
tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when individually accountable
deindividuation
loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
group polarization
the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
groupthink
mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
prejudice
unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members
stereotype
generalized belief about a group of people
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
just world phenomenon
tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
ingroup
people with whom we share a common identity
outgroup
those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
scapegoat theory
theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
frustration aggression principle
principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression
mere exposure effect
phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
companionate love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
self-disclosure
act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
bystander effect
tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
social exchange theory
social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
reciprocity norm
expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped him
social responsibility norm
expectation that people will help those needing their help
conflict
perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
social trap
situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in a mutually destructive behavior
mirror image perception
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
self-fulfilling prophecy
belief that leads to its own fulfillment
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)
strategy designed to decrease international tensions
personality
an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
psychodynamic theory
view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences (Freud)
psychoanalysis
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; treats psychological disorders by exposing and interpreting unconscious tensions
unconscious
reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, and memories; information processing of which we are unaware
free association
method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
id
part of Freud’s personality structure; reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
ego
part of Freud’s personality structure; largely conscious “executive” part of the personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality
superego
part of Freud’s personality structure; represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations
reality principle
satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
psychosexual stages
childhood stages of development during which the id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
psychosexual stage zones
Oral (0 - 18 months) Anal (18 - 36 months) Phallic (3 - 6 years) Latency (6 - puberty) Genital (puberty on)
Oedipus complex
boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
identification
process by which children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos
fixation
lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage in which conflicts were unresolved
defense mechanism
ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
repression
basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
regression
retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage
reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
projection
disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
rationalization
offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions
displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
denial
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
collective unconscious
Carl Jung; Neo-Freudian concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history
projective test
personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test)
projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Rorschcach inkblot test
Hermann Rorschach; most widely used projective test; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
terror management theory
death related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminder of their impending death
humanistic theory
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth (Maslow and Rogers)
self-actualization
one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved in order to fulfill one’s potential
final exam
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unconditional positive regard
attitude of total acceptance toward another person
personality inventory
questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests; originally developed to identify emotional disorders
emperically derived test
test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
big 5 factors
conscientiousness agreeableness neuroticism openness extraversion
social cognitive perspective
view behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits and their social context
reciprocal determinism
interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
self esteem
one’s feelings of high or low self-worth
self efficacy
one’s sense of competence and effectiveness
psychological disorder
syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior
medical model
concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured often through treatment in a hospital
epigenetics
study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
anxiety disorder
psychological disorder characterized by distressing persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
generalized anxiety disorder
anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
panic disorder
anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
phobia
anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder)
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts, or actions
PTSD post traumatic stress disorder
disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
major depressive disorder
disorder in which a person experiences two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, one of which being in a depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure
symptoms of major depressive disorder
o Depressed mood
o Dramatically reduced interest or enjoyment in most activities
o Significant challenges regulating appetite and weight
o Significant challenges regulating sleep
o Physical agitation or lethargy
o Feeling listless or with much less energy
o Feeling worthless or feeling unwarranted guilt
o Problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
o Thinking repetitively of death and suicide
bipolar disorder
disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
mania
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common
rumination
compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes
chronic schizophrenia
form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood; as people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten
acute schizophrenia
form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event and has extended recovery periods
dissociative identity disorder
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities (formerly called multiple personality disorder)
antisocial personality disorder
personality disorder in which a person exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing even toward friends and family members; may be more aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating with purging or fasting
personality disorders
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques, consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
eclectic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety laden material
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships
psychodynamic therapy
therapy derived from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight
insight therapy
variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses
client centered therapy
humanistic therapy which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening with in a genuine and empathetic environment to facilitate clients’ growth (Carl Rogers)
active listening
empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies
carl rogers
client centered therapy; active listening; unconditional positive regard
sigmund freud
id, ego, superego; psychoanalysis, psychodynamic theory
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
counterconditioning
behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors
exposure therapy
behavioral techniques that treat anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear and avoid
systematic desensitization
type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli, commonly used to treat phobias
virtual reality exposure therapy
anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears
aversive conditioning
type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior
token economy
operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange their tokens for various privileges or treats
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
CBT (cognitive behavior therapy)
popular integrative therapy that combines changing self-defeating thinking with changing behavio
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system; views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by other family members
psychopharmacology
the study of the effects on mind and behavior
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder (such as chlorpromazine)
antianxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation (such as Xanax or Ativan)
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (several used are SSRIs)
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy)
biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
rTMS ( repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation)
application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain, used to stimulate or suppress brain activity
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
resilience
personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
postraumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
lobotomy
psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients; procedure cuts nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion controlling centers of the inner brain
