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BIOL 1108: Principles of Biology II > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cambrian Explosion

A

A relatively brief time in geologic history when many present-day phyla of animals first appeared in the fossil record. This burst of evolutionary change occurred about 535-525 million years ago and saw the emergence of the first large, hard-bodied animals.

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2
Q

Bilaterians

A

Member of a clade of animals with bilateral symmetry and three germ layers

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3
Q

Ectoderm

A

The outermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; gives rise to the outer covering and, in some phyla, the nervous system, inner ear, and lens of the eye

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4
Q

Endoderm

A

The innermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; lines the archenteron and gives rise to the liver, pancreas, lungs, and the lining of the digestive tract in species that have these structures

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5
Q

Mesoderm

A

The middle primary germ layer in a triploblastic animal embryo; develops into the notochord, the lining of the coelom, muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys, and most of the circulatory system in species that have these structures.

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6
Q

Chordates

A

Member of the phylum Chordata, animals that at some point during their development have a notochord; a dorsal, hollow nerve cord; pharyngeal slits or clefts; and a muscular, post-anal tail

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7
Q

Notochord

A

A longitudinal, flexible rod that runs along the anterior-posterior axis of a chordate in the dorsal part of the body

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8
Q

Tetrapods

A

Member of a vertebrate clade characterized by limbs with digits. Tetrapods include mammals, amphibians, and birds and other reptiles.

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9
Q

Amniotes

A

Member of a clade of tetrapods named for a key derived character, the amniotic egg, which contains specialized membranes, including the fluid-filled amnion, that protect the embryo. Amniotes include mammals as well as birds and other reptiles

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10
Q

Ectothermic

A

Referring to organisms for which external sources provide most of the heat for temperature regulation

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11
Q

Endothermic

A

Referring to organisms that are warmed by heat generated by their own metabolism. This heat usually maintains a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment.

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12
Q

Monotremes

A

An egg-laying mammal, such as a platypus or echidna. Like all mammals, monotremes have hair and produce milk, but they lack nipples.

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13
Q

Eutherians

A

Placental mammal; mammal whose young complete their embryonic development within the uterus, joined to the mother by the placenta

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14
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. Functions as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss. Forms active interfaces with the environment.

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15
Q

Glial Cells

A

Help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons and in some cases moderate neuron function.

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16
Q

Endocrine System

A

The internal system of communication involving hormones, the ductless glands that secrete hormones, and the molecular receptors on or in target cells that respond to hormones; functions in concert with the nervous system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis.

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17
Q

Nervous System

A

The fast-acting internal system of communication involving sensory receptors, networks of nerve cells, and connections to muscles and glands that respond to nerve signals; functions in concert with the endocrine system to effect internal regulation and maintain homeostasis.

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18
Q

Hormones

A

In multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the body, changing the target cells’ functioning. Hormones are thus important in long-distance signaling.

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19
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

A gland that secretes hormones directly into the interstitial fluid, from which they diffuse into the bloodstream

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20
Q

Hypothalamus

A

The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors that regulate the anterior pituitary.

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21
Q

Negative Feedback

A

A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process; in physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change

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22
Q

Positive Feedback

A

A form of regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up that process; in physiology, a control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that reinforces or amplifies the change.

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23
Q

Pancreas

A

A gland with exocrine and endocrine tissues. The exocrine portion functions in digestion, secreting enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the ductless endocrine portion functions in homeostasis, secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.

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24
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

An endocrine gland at the base of the hypothalamus; consists of a posterior lobe, which stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus, and an anterior lobe, which produces and secretes many hormones that regulate diverse body functions.

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25
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

An extension of the hypothalamus composed of nervous tissue that secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone made in the hypothalamus; a temporary storage site for these hormones.

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26
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

A portion of the pituitary that develops from non-neural tissue; consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete several tropic and nontropic hormones

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27
Q

Epinephrine

A

A catecholamine that, when secreted as a hormone by the adrenal medulla, mediates “fight-or-flight” responses to short-term stresses; also released by some neurons as a neurotransmitter; also known as adrenaline.

28
Q

Regulator

A

An animal which mechanisms of homeostasis moderate internal changes in a particular variable in the face of external fluctuation of that variable

29
Q

Conformer

A

An animal for which an internal condition conforms to (changes in accordance with) changes in an environmental variable

30
Q

Countercurrent Exchange

A

The exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions. For example, blood in a fish gill flows in the opposite direction of water passing over the gills, maximizing diffusion of oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood.

31
Q

Osmoconformer

A

An animal that is isoomotic with its environment

32
Q

Osmoregulator

A

An animal that controls its internal osmolarity independent of the external environment

33
Q

Ammonia

A

A small, toxic molecule (written NH subscript 3) produced by nitrogen fixation or as a metabolic waste product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism

34
Q

Urea

A

A soluble nitrogenous waste product in the liver by a metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide

35
Q

Uric Acid

A

A product of protein and purine metabolism and the major nitrogenous waste product of insects, land snails, and many reptiles. Uric acid is relatively nontoxic and largely insoluble.

36
Q

Transport Epithelia

A

One or more layers of specialized epithelial cells that carry out and regulate solute movement

37
Q

Countercurrent Multiplier System

A

A countercurrent system in which energy is expended in active transport to facilitate exchange of materials and generate concentration gradients

38
Q

Alimentary Canal

A

A complete digestive tract, consisting of a tube running between a mouth and an anus

39
Q

Small Intestine

A

The longest section of the alimentary canal, so named because of its small diameter compared with that of the large intestine; the principal site of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food macromolecules and the absorption of nutrients.

40
Q

Duodenum

A

The first section of the small intestine, where chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder as well as from gland cells of the intestinal wall

41
Q

Pancreas

A

A gland with exocrine and endocrine tissues. The exocrine portion functions in digestion, secreting enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the ductless endocrine portion functions in homeostasis, secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood

42
Q

Liver

A

A large internal organ in vertebrates that performs diverse functions, such as producing bile, maintaining blood glucose level, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood

43
Q

Gallbladder

A

An organ that stores bile and releases it as needed into the small intestine

44
Q

Large Intestine

A

The portion of the vertebrate alimentary canal between the small intestine and the anus; functions mainly in water absorption and the formation of feces.

45
Q

Cecum

A

The blind pouch forming one branch of the large intestine

46
Q

Insulin

A

A hormone secreted by pancreatic beta cells that lowers blood glucose levels. It promotes the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver.

47
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

A decrease in the diameter of blood vessels caused by contraction of smooth muscles in the vessel walls

48
Q

Vasodilation

A

An increase in the diameter of blood vessels caused by relaxation of smooth muscles in the vessel walls

49
Q

Lymphatic System

A

A system of vessels and nodes, separate from the circulation system, that returns fluid, proteins, and cells to the blood

50
Q

Erythrocytes

A

A blood cell that contains hemoglobin, which transports oxygen; also called a red blood cell.

51
Q

Hemoglobin

A

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen

52
Q

Leukocyte

A

A blood cell that functions in fighting infection; also called a white blood cell.

53
Q

Thrombus

A

A fibrin-containing clot that forms in a blood vessel and blocks the flow of blood

54
Q

T Cells

A

The class of lymphocytes that mature in the thymus; they include both effector cells for the cell-mediated immune response and helper cells required for both branches of adaptive immunity

55
Q

B Cells

A

The lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow and become effector cells for the humoral immune response

56
Q

Antigen

A

A substance that elicits an immune response by binding to receptors of B cells. antibodies, or T cells

57
Q

Antigen Receptor

A

The general term for a surface protein, located on B cells and T cells, that binds to antigens, initiating adaptive immune responses. The antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors, and the antigen receptors on T cells are called T cell receptors.

58
Q

Epitope

A

A small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds; also called an antigenic determinant.

59
Q

Antibody/Immunoglobin

A

A protein secreted by plasma cells (differentiated B cells) that binds to a particular antigen; also called immunoglobulin. All antibodies have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains

60
Q

Dendrites

A

One of usually numerous, short, highly branched extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons

61
Q

Axon

A

A typically long extension, or process, of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body toward target cells

62
Q

Synapse

A

The junction where a neuron communicates with another cell across a narrow gap via a neurotransmitter or an electrical coupling

63
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

A molecule that is released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse, diffuses across the synaptic cleft, and binds to the postsynaptic cell, triggering a response

64
Q

Membrane Potential/Potential Energy

A

Difference in charge between outside and inside of cell

65
Q

Resting Potential

A

Membrane potential when cell is not “excited”

66
Q

Action Potentials

A

Happen when a neuron is stimulated, causing the change in membrane potential

67
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis

A

Interaction between nervous and endocrine system

BIOL 1108: Principles of Biology II (9 decks)

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