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A&P > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

muscular responses

A

twitch

summation

incomplete and complete tetanus

recruitment of motor units

length tension relationship

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2
Q

twitch

A

muscle completely relaxed before next stimulation

not very helpful- need sustained contraction or several small contractions

motor neuron action potential

muscle fiber action potential

latent period

delayed muscle contraction

due to contraction process (last exam) (takes time)

muscle contraction. relaxation

1 muscle contraction (impulse) followed by relaxation

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3
Q

summation

A

muscle couldn’t fully relax before next stimulus

additive

some relaxation

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4
Q

incomplete and complete tetanus

A

stimulations closer and closer together

soon relaxation not possible

sustained contraction

incomplete tetanus

still some relaxation

complete tetanus

no opportunity for relaxation

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5
Q

recruitment of motor units

A

motor unit- nerve and all muscle fibers it controls

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6
Q

length tension relationship

A

optimal range pre contraction overlap actin and myosin

myosin heads have something to grab onto-have job- sliding- causes momentum and force

little bit of bend helps- like lifting weights

outside optimal range = significant loss in maximum tension

too short- no sliding- no momentum

too long- myosin heads have nothing to grab onto

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7
Q

how does length tension relationship affect heart health

A

hearts have sarcomeres

congestive heart failure: weak contractions- overly stretched

more volume brought in over stretches and contracts w/ less strength

can’t release volume let in

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8
Q

Muscle energetics

A

Stored ATP

Creatine Phosphate

Intensity and duration of activity

anaerobic and aerobic pathways

lactic acid threshold and oxygen debt

fatigue

recovery

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9
Q

Muscle energetics stored ATP

A

first 5 seconds used

body cant store much ATP

usually used right away

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10
Q

creatine phosphate

A

CP

AT rest can be combined with ADP

breaks down and manufactures ATP in 1 step (1 ATP)

can be reversible

ATP + C ←→ ADP + CP

a cell can only contain so much CP

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11
Q

intensity and duration of activity

A

short duration, high intensity

long duration, low intensity

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12
Q

anaerobic pathways

A

without oxygen- doesnt participate in reactions

there but not participating

cells cant store glucose but can store glycogen- has to be broken into glucose

cytosol- fluid portion of cell- glycolysis occurs

net gain of 2 ATP

produce pyruvic acid using glycolysis (a series of reactions) in cytosol

if oxygen is still not being utilized, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid

uses carbohydrates as energy source

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13
Q

aerobic pathways

A

pyruvic acid and forward uses oxygen

if oxygen is available pyruvic acid moves into mitochondria

if oxygen is not available pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid

fatty acids and amino acids can be used as an energy source, only in the presence of oxygen

can still use carbohydrates

makes around low 30 something ATP

fatty acids would produce more ATP per molecule

amino acids- want to use to make proteins, not use as energy

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14
Q

fatigue

A

short duration exercise = depletion of ATP and CP stores plus lactic acid production- high intensity

run out of CP- has to rest to make more

anaerobic- lactic acid build up- interferes with enzymes (pH changes makes enzymes unhappy)

lactic acid doesn’t stay put- blood circulation carries it away- does NOT make you sore

goes to liver to be converted into glucose- uses ATP- no net gain (wash)

long duration exercise = depletion of glycolysis stores- low intensity

“hitting the wall”- depletion of glycogen

why people have to eat during a marathon (carbohydrates)

to recover- rest and eat

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15
Q

recovery

A

removal of lactic acid

lactic acid doesn’t stay put- blood circulation carries it away- does NOT make you sore- short duration

goes to liver to be converted into glucose- uses ATP- no net gain (wash)- short duration

to recover- rest and eat- long duration

delayed onset muscle soreness

confined to eccentric muscles

very small tears in muscles, connective tissue, and/or tendons

micro tears

controlled muscle contractions and lengthening, myosin head being torn from actin

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16
Q

types of contraction

A

isotonic

isometric

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17
Q

isotonic contraction

A

same tension or force

length changes

concentric

muscle shortens

eccentric

muscle lengthens

myosin heads are breaking off actin

micro tears- greater gains and strength than concnetric

larger thicker stronger structure- maybe more myobrils in that area

doing eccentric movements with controlled slow lowering will maintain strength with less time and less reps

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18
Q

isometric contraction

A

same measure

no movement at joint

muscle maintains same length but will develop tension

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19
Q

muscle fiber types

A

different kinds of cells (fibers)- like red and white meat

slow twitch (red; type I)

fast twitch glycolytic (white; type IIb)

fast twitch intermediate (white; type IIa)

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20
Q

slow twitch (red; type I) muscle fiber

A

ATPase enzyme version that energizes myosin slowly= contract slowly

more abundant blood supply

manufactures myoglobin- has a lot- related to myoglobin

best endurance

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21
Q

fast twitch glycolytic (white; type IIb) muscle fiber

A

no/ few myoglobin

get majority of ATP through glycolysis

less mitochondria

worst endurance, most powerful

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22
Q

fast twitch intermediate (white; type IIa) muscle fiber

A

have a fair amount of myoglobin

in the middle

have mitochondria

decent blood supply

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23
Q

slow vs fast twitch

A

how fast contract

depend on ATPase enzyme

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24
Q

red vs white

A

blood supply

more= red

blood delivers oxygen to make ATP (aerobic respiration)

white= less blood supply

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25
Q

myoglobin

A

smaller

oxygen bind to (give red color)

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26
Q

hemoglobin

A

larger

giver red color

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27
Q

rhabdomyolysis

A

skeletal muscles rupture and contents spill out in blood stream

one of the contents (myoglobin)

kidneys- filter through size

myoglobin can start filtering but cant finish- plug up filtration

go into kidney failure

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28
Q

lever systems

A

defined by order of components (look at middle)

fulcrum- joint

flat part- bone

force- muscle attaches to bone

first class (resistance-fulcrum-force)

second class (fulcrum-resistance-force)

third class (resistant-force-fulcrum)

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29
Q

first class (resistance-fulcrum-force)

A

scissors

fulcrum in middle

triceps brachii

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30
Q

second class (fulcrum-resistance-force)

A

wheelbarrow

resistance in middle

standing on tip toes

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31
Q

third class (resistant-force-fulcrum)

A

force in center

tweezers

biceps brachii

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32
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

anatomy

actin and myosin

excitation-contraction coupling

relaxation

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33
Q

smooth muscle anatomy

A

no striations, single nucleus, spindle shaped

smaller

single nuclei

narrow on ends widens at middle (spindle)

connected by gap junctions-electrical synapse

rudimentary sarcoplasmic reticulum

calcium coming from outside cell (5x more outside)

no calcium storage

no t-tubules

no impulse deep in cell

most are single unit (visceral)

n epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, or endomysium

smooth muscle has gap junction

cant have flow and cell to cell communication if covered by endomysium

no sarcomeres

no pattern to actin and myosin overlap

no striations

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34
Q

smooth muscle actin and myosin

A

Greater ratio of myosin to actin than in skeletal muscle

And more crossbridge units per actin than skeletal muscle

more myosin attached to actin

doesn’t have to be from same cell

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35
Q

smooth muscle excitation-contraction coupling

A

calcium (from intracellular and extracellular sources) enters sarcoplasm

no troponin or troposyosin

binding spots are always open

calcium binds to calmodulin

regulator protein

binding to calmodulin activates enxyme kinase

presence of calcium activates (phosphorylates) myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)

Activated MLCK causes cross-bridge formation

activates and energizes myosin

contraction not dependent on calcium but on myosin phosphorylation

control when myosin is activated, doesn’t control binding sites

calcium is still the trigger- just trigger different things

skeletal: myosin energized all time, binding sites controlled

smooth: binding sites always available, control activation of myosin

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36
Q

smooth muscle relaxation

A

calcium removed

inactivation (dephosphorylation) of MLCK

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37
Q

comparing smooth and skeletal muscles

A

more cross-bridges per actin in smooth muscle

smooth muscle regulation at level of myosin, not troponin and actin

tone held longer in smooth muscles with less energy requirement

smooth muscle contraction often phasic or rhythmic (ex) peristalsis)

smooth muscles can be stretched more without loss of tension (plasticity)

smooth muscle contractions slower

not all smooth muscles require neural stimulation

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38
Q

ore cross-bridges per actin in smooth muscle

A

smooth muscle: more myosin

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39
Q

tone held longer in smooth muscles with less energy requirement

A

consumes less energy- lose less ATP as heat

contract for longer

more efficient

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40
Q

smooth muscle contraction often phasic or rhythmic (ex) peristalsis)

A

patterns of contraction (peristalsis)- stimulates neighboring cells

cell to cell electrical synapses

small intestine- 18-20 ft long- move contents along in segments, 1 segment contracts and push contents forward to next segment and starts over- like tube of toothpaste

ex) intestines, urine from kidneys to bladder

visceral smooth muscle carries out peristalsis

multi unit smooth muscle- works like skeletal muscle motor unit

iris of eye: pigmented smooth muscle- 2 sets, stimulated by nerve- make pupil dilate and contract

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41
Q

smooth muscles can be stretched more without loss of tension (plasticity)

A

more myosin from other smooth muscle can attach

different myosin filament

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42
Q

smooth muscle contractions slower

A

held longer

when relaxed: spindle shaped

when contracted- more globular (fatter) and shorter

actin and myosin closer to surface

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43
Q

not all smooth muscles require neural stimulation

A

hormones- many respond

uterus

stretch

reflex

stomach overfills and stretches stomach

reflexively

right hand side of graph: move intersecting point to the right- 2x as far away

can stretch a tremendous amount before losing tone and strength

more myosin

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44
Q

Why does glucose uptake by a skeletal muscle cell require transporter such as GLUT4? In other words, why isn’t simple diffusion possible

A

Glucose is large and polar

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45
Q

What stimulates the insertion of GLUT4 into the sarcolemma?

A

insulin dependent; exercise dependent (Skeletal muscle contraction)

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46
Q

The existence of GLUT4 in the sarcolemma does not guarantee glucose uptake into the cell. Why? what else is required?

A

concentration gradient

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47
Q

Exercise helps reduce blood glucose levels in people, even if their insulin resistant unless their cells can no longer respond to insulin efficiently. how is this possible

A

exercise specific

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48
Q

exercise at a submaximal level flow chart

A

glucose released from liver

blood glucose levels decrease

insertion of GLUTs into sarcolemma

diffusion of glucose into cells

Skeletal muscles also use glycogen but they use it right away so it doesn’t get released into the bloodstream

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49
Q

LDH

A

Converts pyruvate into lactate

reversible

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50
Q

H+

A

Minimizes changes of ph

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51
Q

lactate

A

produced all the time

52
Q

lactic acid

A

Produced during anaerobic respiration

53
Q

in an actively contracting skeletal muscle cell what would cause a decrease in the rate of glucose diffusion into this cell

A

if GLUT4 is saturated; # of transporters- Can only transport one glucose at a time- if GLUT4 is saturated wont work

change in concentration gradient

54
Q

In order to produce lactate from pyruvate what items or inputs are required

A

LDH, H+, NADH

55
Q

During glycolysis 1 molecule of glucose which has six carbons is split into two molecules of pyruvate which has three carbons each. Each pyruvate molecule can then be converted into a molecule of lactate which also has three carbons. Oxygen is not required for any of these processes to occur why

A

no carbon dioxide is produced

no change (decrease) in total number of carbons

56
Q

After a lactate is produced in the sarcoplasm where might it go and how might it be used

A

into mitochondria; exits cell

mitochondria Can convert lactate into pyruvate

when exiting the cell it is cotransported with H+ ions- the H+ ions become the issue

57
Q

How does the production of lactate protect or buffer the cell from acidosis which is defined as the accumulation of H + in a fluid filled compartment

A

picks up 2H+

58
Q

Look at the structure of lactate. Do you think it can leave the cells via simple diffusion? Why or why not

A

polar; relatively large

59
Q

the 3 fates of lactate

A

exit cell via MCT

mitochondria

converted to pyruvate

60
Q

If lactate is an energy source for the cell in which it is produced, why does it spill into the blood in other words why to blood lactate levels increase during exercise especially in untrained people

A

production>utilization

Lactate is not the problem H+ Co transported is

61
Q

LDH is an enzyme and thus a protein. in order for a skeletal muscle cell to increase the amount of LDH within the sarcoplasm, what cellular processes must be completed? what organelles need to be added to figure in order for LDH to be produced?

A

increased protein synthesis= more copies of enzyme LDH

62
Q

Through dedicated training, the speeder level of effort coinciding with a persons lactate threshold improves. Within the skeletal muscle cell what changes might have occurred to permit this improved lactate threshold resulting in less lactate spilling owl into the blood

A

more LDH enzyme (synthesis)

more mitochondria

63
Q

Changes in the extracellular fluid and blood flow chart

A

Items diffusing from the muscle cell are lactate and H+

lactate is used by other organs like the heart

H+ cotransports and causes problems

Transporter used during diffusion is MCT

Location of transporter in the muscle cell is in the sarcolemma

Impact on ECF and blood pH: decrease- H+ added (lactic acid)

64
Q

Lactate

A

produced from pyruvate

65
Q

H+ proton

A

produced from ATP hydrolysis

66
Q

Suppose you are measuring changes in blood composition in real time in an untrained person like Shelby who is jogging a moderate pace on a treadmill and you noticed that as lactate levels increase in her blood so do H+ levels why is this is lactate the original source of these additional H+ ions

A

Lactate co transports with H+

67
Q

Hypothesize how Shelby’s lactate threshold rest would change with dedicated aerobic training. What changes would occur within skeletal muscle cells to delay the spilling of lactate into the blood

A

more LDH (enzyme) and more mitochondria= raise lactate threshold

68
Q

lactic acid

A

produced during anaerobic respiration

proton donor- produces protons

decreases pH in sarcoplasm

69
Q

lactate

A

produced during aerobic respiration

proton acceptor (remove protons from fluid

keep pH in sarcoplasm neutral (buffer)

70
Q

Skim back through this case study and identify the causes of H+ production and accumulation in the sarcoplasm, extracellular fluid, and blood. Is lactate ever the original source of these ions were just guilty by association? Then go back to the very first page of this case study and re examine your thoughts from activity one can you generate a more detailed list of misconceptions now

A

H+ originate from ATP hydrolysis and NADH

lactate is not the cause- guilty by association

71
Q

What is the relationship between the production of lactate and the burning sensation many people like Shelby described after they begin a new exercise regimen or activity how is the brain made aware of this situation

A

H+ stimulate pain receptors

72
Q

Hypothesize what changes could occur within skeletal muscle cells that would help prevent the burning sensation after completing an aerobic exercise activity like jogging

A

increased LDH (enzyme) and increased mitochondria

73
Q

nervous system basics

A

divisions

classifications of neurons

neuroglial cells

axon regeneration

impulse processing

74
Q

divisions of nervous system

A

central nervous system

peripheral nervous system

sensory division

motor division

75
Q

sensory division of pns

A

sensory receptors

sensory nerves

76
Q

sensory receptors

A

all over skin

pick up touch, ect

carried by sensory nerves

77
Q

sensory nerves

A

can only carry toward CNS

cant go back to nerve

78
Q

motor division of PNS

A

somatic

skeletal muscle

conscious control

autonomic

smooth and cardiac muscle

glands

no conscious control

79
Q

classifications of neurons

A

anatomical

unipolar

bipolar

multipolar

physiological

sensory

interneurons

motor

80
Q

unipolar neurons

A

1 process that exists

splits

1 region that acts as dendrite- labelled at very end because the rest is myelinated

1 region acts as axon

sensory division- most common in sensory

81
Q

bipolar neurons

A

1 dendrite

1 axon

sensory division

82
Q

multipolar neuron

A

at least 2 dendrites

1 axon

motor and interneurons

83
Q

interneurons

A

transferring from 1 sensory neuron to motor neuron

connecting neuron

only CNS

84
Q

motor

A

away from CNS and toward effectors

85
Q

neuroglial cells

A

CNS- support neuron- don’t send impulse

astrocytes

ependyma

microglia

oligodendrocytes

PNS

Schwann cells

86
Q

astrocytes

A

“star”

have extensions

sit on top of capillary

deliver nutrients to neuron from capillary

deliver waste to capillary from neuron

provide protection: apart of the brain barrier

level of selectivity of what gets to neuron

picky about size and polarity

loves nonpolar

hates polar

87
Q

ependyma

A

fluid filled cavity

fluid: cerebral spinal fluid

create cavity that holds fluid

creates barrier to prevent getting to neuron

selective about polar substances

88
Q

microglia

A

carry out phagocytosis

clean up debris, cell fragments, infectious agents

89
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

insulates

allows impulse to go faster

90
Q

Schwann cells

A

myelinate ad increase speed

help regenerate damaged axon

91
Q

axon regeneration

A

cell body in tact

axon distal to injury dies

schwann cells stay

own cell and entity

axon can follow pathway and grow in tube

cant grow anywhere on muscle fiber- has to connect with motor end plate

axons don’t grow very fast

1mm a day

92
Q

impulse processing

A

facilitation

convergence

divergence

93
Q

facilitation

A

raise something toward threshold without reaching threshold

“assist or help”

94
Q

convergence

A

“come together”

multiple presynaptic neurons

terminate on same postsynaptic cell

raise toward threshold

95
Q

divergence

A

motor unit is an example

1 presynaptic cell, multiple postsynaptic cell

96
Q

CNS- Bones of cranium and spinal vertebrae

A

hard and good protection

no give if there is inflammation

swelling goes into CNS structures instead

97
Q

CNS meninges

A

layers

partitions

subarachnoid space

epidural space

98
Q

Layers of CNS meninges

A

form a layer around brain- fold in and make partitions

dura mater

outermost layer

durable

toughest

lots of collagen

arachnoid mater

look sweb like

CSF

between arachnoid mater and pia mater

pia mater

on surface of CNS

follows nooks and crannies

arachnoid granulations

where cerebral spinal fluid exits into venus blood

99
Q

partitions of CNS meninges

A

make control of cross communication

separate left and right halves of brain

surface of brain unmyelinated vs. center of spinal cord unmyelinated

fissure: deep crevice

Falx cerebri

separate left and right halves of cerebrum

longitudinal fissure

Falx cerebelli

separate left and right halves of cerebellum

Tentorium cerebelli

separate cerebellum from cerebrum

transverse fissure

100
Q

subarachnoid space

A

csf circulates

provide nutrition and cushioning

101
Q

epidural space

A

between dura mater and spinal cord

102
Q

ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid

A

functions of CSF

composition of CSF

production by choroid plexuses in ventricles

ventricles: all CSF circulates here

choroid plexus makes CSF

ependymal cells

circulation

103
Q

functions of CSF

A

provide nutrition and cushioning

104
Q

composition of CSF

A

proteins are different

size: proteins filtered out from plasma to CSF

osmolarity the same

no net gains or losses by osmosis

good bc no room for gains of csf

105
Q

production by choroid plexuses in ventricles

A

ventricles: all CSF circulates here

choroid plexus makes CSF

106
Q

circulation

A

constant exit through arachnoid granulations

what draws CSF in forward direction

107
Q

blood brain barrier

A

astrocytes

contains pericytes

pericytes (a type of smooth muscle cell of the microcirculation)

capillary endothelium with tight junctions

simple squamous epithelium

to leave: have to leave plasma, then get across capillary, then through pericyte and out of astrocyte

how blood CSF different: not nearly as restrictive, no go between

108
Q

blood CSF barrier

A

choroid epithelial cells

basal membrane

endothelium of pia mater capillaries

109
Q

comparison of BBB and BCSF

A

BBB

selective at endothelium

tight juctions there

have to have carriers and be fat soluble

move from blood out

BCSF

not held by tight junctions

proteins wont filter

selective at choroid plexus ependymal cells

can go both directions

still need a carrier protein and be fat soluble

110
Q

cerebrum

A

gyri, sulci, and fissures

lobes

hemispheric dominance (lateralization) and corpus collosum

memory

111
Q

gyri

A

rased area of the cerebrum

also called convolutions

112
Q

sulci

A

depression of cerebrum

113
Q

fissure

A

a fissure is different than a sulci because fissure are more prominent and deeper.

114
Q

lobes of cerebrum

A

frontal lobe

parietal lobe

temporal lobe

occipital lobe

115
Q

frontal lobe of cerebrum

A

primary motor cortex

red/ pink in picture

all skeletal muscles

controls muscles on opposite side of body

in front of central sulcus

broca’s area

just for speech

frontal eye field

coordination

level of control

move eyes up and down together

can also move 1 eye laterally and the other medially as if looking at finger

116
Q

cortex

A

near surface

117
Q

association area

A

higher processing

concentration

math

plan for future

actions have consequences

take a long time to mature

118
Q

cerebral cortex

A

grey matter

on surface

unmyelinated

more cross talk

119
Q

smooth brain syndrome

A

a condition characterized by a lack of gyri and sulci in the brain, leading to developmental issues and cognitive impairments. (less wrinkles)

120
Q

parietal lobe of cerebrum

A

primary somatosensory cortex

yellow strip in picture

sensory area involved with cutaneous senses

skins senses

touch taste temperature pain

some internal organs that are near surface

somatosensory association cortex

word choice

understanding words and speech

pauses emphasis tone

gustatory cortex

eating and taste

taste food

121
Q

temporal lobe of cerebrum

A

primary auditory cortex

hearing

raw sounds

the more specialized areas

what sounds mean

recognizing patterns

Wernicke’s areas

between temporal and parietal lobe (in middle)

put all the senses together

how to watch movie

122
Q

occipital lobe of cerebrum

A

primary visual cortex

vision

seeing objects

visual association area

recognize individuals

see background

way hold themselves- when cant see face

123
Q

hemispheric dominance (lateralization) and corpus collosum

A

hemispheric dominance (lateralization)

generally, people concentrate on information

most people are left-brain dominant- 90% of the population

left hemisphere: language, analytical

right hemisphere: orientation of motor tasks, recognition of patterns, emotional thought processes, personality

corpus callosum

allow left and right cerebrum to communicate with each other

very controlled

124
Q

motor cortex

A

mostly made to control facial muscles and hands

better 50%

skeletal muscle

facial expression

chewing

speaking

eatng

125
Q

sensory cortex

A

primarily controls skin and nerves for speech and hands

speech

chewing

swallowing

big areas of feedback

126
Q

Phineas gage

A

right hemisphere dominant

was not affected

could still talk, problem solve, communicate, could do everything

left hemisphere non dominant

affected

change personality

A&P (5 decks)

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