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A&P > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

bone classification by shape

A
  1. long bones
  2. short bones
  3. sesamoid (round) bones (sometimes considered a type of short bone)
  4. flat bones
  5. irregular bones
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2
Q

long bones

A

femur, finger, toes

one axis is longer than other axis

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3
Q

short bones

A

ankles, wrist

axes are all about the same length

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4
Q

sesamoid (round) bones (sometimes considered a type of short bone)

A

completely embedded in connective tissue

patella

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5
Q

flat bones

A

broad surface, relatively thin

cranium

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6
Q

irregular bones

A

everything else

facial bones, vertebrae

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7
Q

gross anatomy of long bones

A

only appendages

all bones with names are organs

bone is type of connective tissue

widely spread

intracellular matrix

collagen

  1. epiphyses (singular=epiphysis) and diaphysis
  2. articular (hyaline) cartilage
  3. medullary cavity
  4. compact (cortical) bone and cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
  5. endosteum and periosteum
  6. red marrow and yellow marrow
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8
Q

epiphyses (singular=epiphysis) and diaphysis

A

epiphyses:

distal and proximal

only long bones

diaphysis

goes between the epiphyses

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9
Q

articular (hyaline) cartilage

A

all bones with synovial joints

form union with another bone

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10
Q

medullary cavity

A

lined with endosteum

only long bones

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11
Q

compact (cortical) bone and cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone

A

compact-surface

spongy- inside

spongy- mass without the weight, porous, blood vessels wind way through open spaces

tissue

all bones have

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12
Q

endosteum and periosteum

A

inside bone

inside medullary cavity

only long bones have endosteum

all bones have periosteum

goes around the bone

dense fibrous connective tissue

collagen protein- primary

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13
Q

red marrow and yellow marrow

A

red marrow

all bones

found in spongy

makes all blood cells

yellow marrow

only long bones

in medullary cavity

fatty substance, store calories

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14
Q

microscopic structure of bone

A
  1. compact (cortical) bone
  2. cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
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15
Q

compact (cortical) bone

A
  1. osteons present
  2. osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
  3. matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
  4. central canal, lamellae, osteons
  5. perforating canals
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16
Q

osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculili

A

osteocytes look like spiders

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17
Q

central canals, lamellae, osteons

A

all rings make osteons

osteons with central canal in middle

contain blood vessels

rings of tissue around central canal called lamellae

blood vessels only in central canal

rely on diffusion to get nutrients

osteons about same size due to limit of diffusion

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18
Q

perforating canals

A

90 degree angles to central canal

how blood gets from blood vessels in medullary cavity out to central canals

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19
Q

cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone

A

1.all bone tissue have canaliculi and lacunae but compact arranged around central canal
2. osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
3. matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
4. trabeculae, lamellae

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20
Q

osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi

A

lacunae- white space around cells

canaliculi- space around extensions where bone cells meet (gap junctions)

exchange nutrients well

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21
Q

trabeculae, lamellae

A

trabeculae- bony plate

lamellae- arranged in circular rings- no central canal. blood supply isn’t in center- all around due to gap junctions

cells are connected by gap junctions

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22
Q

things unique to long bone

A

epiphyses

diaphysis

medullary cavity

endosteum

yellow marrow

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23
Q

things all bones have

A

articular (hyaline) cartilage

compact bone

spongy bone

periosteum

red marrow

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24
Q

cancellous (spongy, Trabecular) bone

A

trabeculae present

all bond tissues have canaliculi and lacunae but compact arranged around central canal

  1. osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
  2. Matrix of collagen and inorganic salts
  3. trabeculae, lamellae
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25
Q

osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi

A

lacunae- White space around cells

canaliculi- space around extensions where bone cells meet (gap junctions) - exchange nutrients well

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26
Q

trabeculae, lamellae

A

bony plate

arranged in circular rings- no central canal

blood supply isnt in center- all around due to gap junctions

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27
Q

hyaline cartilage

A
  1. chondroblasts, chondrocytes, and lacunae
  2. Very fine collagen fibers in matrix
  3. ground substance = protein polysaccharide plus water
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28
Q

chondroblasts, chondrocytes, and lacunae

A

many bones start out as hyaline cartilage- long bones

lacunae- chamber cell is in

chondro- cartilage

extracellular matrix- firm jello like substance w/ collagen fibers- ex) nose

not good Blood supply so it doesn’t heal well

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29
Q

bone development

A
  1. intramembranous ossification
  2. endochondral ossification
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30
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A
  1. Baby cranium, starts in membrane as soft spots
  2. Layers of primitive mesenchyme
  3. mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
  4. Dense vascular supply
  5. Osteocytes soon isolated in Lacunae
  6. . periosteaum Forms from mesenchyme
  7. Compact bone deposited over spongy bone
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31
Q

Layers of primitive mesenchyme

A

Collagen connective tissue-is not in adults

Hasnt specialized

Progenitor cell is not specialized

Will become connective tissue cell

gene expression activates progenitor cell

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32
Q

mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts

A

bone forming cell

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33
Q

Osteocytes soon isolated in Lacunae

A

become osteocyte when form lacunae around

transport nutrients and waste products

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34
Q

periosteaum Forms from mesenchyme

A

progenitor cell specializes to become fibroblast

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35
Q

Compact bone deposited over spongy bone

A

fibroblasts form from progenitor cell on the outside or surface of periosteum

form spongy bone thin surface gaps filled with compact bone

spongy bone forms first due to less stuff having to be made- less mass

spongy bone is more prevalent

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36
Q

endochondral ossification

A
  1. hyaline cartilage model
  2. matrix degenerates, periosteum forms
  3. matrix degenerates, periosteum forms
  4. Spongy bone forms
  5. Osteopaths isolated in lacunae
  6. Compact bone deposited over spongy bone
  7. ossification centers
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37
Q

hyaline cartilage model

A

Collagen connective tissue-is not in adults

Hasnt specialized

Progenitor cell is not specialized

Will become connective tissue cell

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38
Q

matrix degenerates, periosteum forms

A

Cartilage dying from calcification

Has mold to fill

. periosteum develops

accumulates calcium- cartilage is dying

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39
Q

Blood vessels invade; osteoblasts differentiate under periosteum

A

Move into tissue with osteoblasts and develop with periosteum

Primary ossification center fill with bone

Remove volume in the form of cartilage

Blood invades epiphysis

epiphysis starts to ossify- secondary ossification center

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40
Q

ossification centers

A

trapped leftover cartilaginous model- epiphyseal plate where bone grows-articular cartilage is also left over

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41
Q

similarities between intramembranous and endochondral ossification

A

both are development

both starting material is different than end material

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42
Q

differences between intramembranous and endochondral ossification

A

intra:

mensenchyme- we dont have anymore

progenitor cells- specializes

good blood supply-always there

endo:

hyaline cartilage- still have

calcium cells- have to die

bad blood supply- invade later

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43
Q

growth of epiphyseal plate

A
  1. layers of cartilaginous cells
  2. phagocytic osteoclasts
  3. invasion of osteoblasts
  4. bone increases in length and thickness
  5. formation of medullary cavity
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44
Q

layers of cartilaginous cells

A
  1. resting cells
  2. mitotic cells
  3. enlarging, calcified cells
  4. dead cells, calcified matrix
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45
Q

resting cells

A

zone of resting cartilage

cartilage isn’t actively dividing

anchoring to epiphysis

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46
Q

mitotic cells

A

zone of proliferating cartilage

rapid cell division of chondrocytes

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47
Q

enlarging calcified cells

A

zone of hypertrophic cartilage

excessive growth

makes plate thicker

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48
Q

dead cells, calcified matrix

A

zone of calcified cartilage

cartilage dies and is removed and replaced by bone tissue

osteoblasts come from medullary cavity to replace cartilage with bone tissue

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49
Q

phagocytic osteoclasts

A

hollow out medullary cavity

50
Q

invasion of osteoblasts

A

fills the spot of cleared out dead cartilage with bone tissue

51
Q

bone increases in length and thickness

A

cartilage lengthens and thickens

bone tissue then fills

52
Q

formation of medullary cavity

A

osteoclasts hollow out medullary cavity

was a macrophage

degrade bone tissue

53
Q

bone homeostasis

A
  1. nutritional status (especially vitamins)
  2. regulation of blood calcium
  3. parathyroid hormone and osteoclasts
54
Q

nutritional status (especially vitamins)

A

vitamins A, C, D

chemicals that enzymes need to do their job

cant do job without

A: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, chemical reactions

C: synthesize collagen

D: help absorb calcium

55
Q

regulation of blood calcium

A

nerves and muscles do job

calcitonin of blood calcium

lowers

too high of blood calcium

thyroid- receptor

release calcitonin- control center

stimulate osteoblasts- effector (take calcium)

56
Q

parathyroid hormone and osteoclasts

A

raises

too low of blood calcium

parathyroid gland- receptor

release parathyroid hormone- control center

stimulate osteoclasts- effector (releases calcium)

57
Q

Classification of joints by degree of movement

A
  1. synarthrotic
  2. amphiarthrotic
  3. diarthrotic
58
Q

Synarthrotic

A

No movement

Everything in the face except the jaw

59
Q

Amphiarthrotic

A

Little movement

Limited motion

Pubic symphysis, vertebral disks

60
Q

diarthrotic

A

Freely moving

elbow, wrist, finger, shoulder

61
Q

Classification of joints by anatomy

A
  1. fibrous joints
    Fibrous connective tissue, dens connective tissue, collagen- synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
  2. cartilaginous joints
    Cartilage- synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
  3. synovial joints
62
Q

Fibrous joints

A
  1. syndesmosis
  2. suture
    gomphosis
63
Q

syndesmosis

A

Amphiarthrotic

interosseous ligament (between bone)

dense connective tissue and collage

64
Q

suture

A

Joint in the skull except the jaw

Connected by collagen

synarthrotic

65
Q

gomphosis

A

Holding tooth and socket

Dense connective tissue and collagen

periodontal ligament (around tooth)

synarthrotic

66
Q

Cartilaginous joints

A
  1. synchondrosis
    2.symphysis with fibrocartilage
67
Q

synchondrosis

A

First rib to sternum

synarthrotic

hyaline cartilage

68
Q

symphysis with fibrocartilage

A

Pubic synthesis, vertebral disks, meniscus in the knee

amphiarthrotic

Fibrocartilage (takes more stress) (ground substance has more collagen) (absorb shock)

69
Q

synovial joints

A
  1. articular (hyaline) cartilage
  2. Joint capsule enclosing cavity
  3. Joint cavity containing synovial fluid
70
Q

Joint capsule enclosing cavity

A

Keeps fluid from escaping

Dense fibrous connective tissue

Lined with synovial membrane

71
Q

Joint cavity containing synovial fluid

A

Fluid filled space

Gives wider range of motion

72
Q

special features of some (larger) synovial joints

A
  1. Fibrocartilage (articular) disks (ex=menisci of knee)
  2. bursae (singular=bursa)
73
Q

Fibrocartilage (articular) disks (ex=menisci of knee)

A

pad of fibrocartilage

Additional shock absorption

knee, jaw

74
Q

bursae (singular=bursa)

A

Sack that is fluid filled

Under Tendon

Helps cushion

Knee, shoulder, hip, elbow

75
Q

Types of joint movement

A
  1. Flexion, extension
  2. adduction, Abduction
    3.Circumduction
  3. Rotation
  4. supination, pronation
  5. eversion, inversion; dorsiflexion, plantar flexion
  6. Protraction, retraction
  7. Elevation, depression
76
Q

Flexion, extension

A

Bend, straighten

Joint angle smaller, joint angle larger

Hyperextension: going beyond normal anatomical position

77
Q

adduction, Abduction

A

Goes back to line, takes away from line

78
Q

Circumduction

A

Has a fixed point

distal end goes in circle

79
Q

Rotation

A

Central Axis

like a wheel

80
Q

supination, pronation

A

Type of rotation

Palm up, palm down

81
Q

eversion, inversion; dorsiflexion, plantar flexion

A

Turn soles laterally, turn soles immediately

point toes toward back, point toes toward bottom of feet (for the foot

82
Q

Protraction, retraction

A

move forward, move back

ex) pigeon heads

83
Q

Elevation, depression

A

raising body part, lower/bring body part back down

shrug shoulders

84
Q

types of synovial joints

A
  1. Ball and socket (multiaxial or triaxial)
  2. codylar (ellipsoid) joint (biaxial)
  3. plane (gliding) joint (multiaxial) (or nonaxial)
  4. hinge joint (uniaxial)
  5. pivot joint (uniaxial)
  6. saddle joint (biaxial)
85
Q

Ball and socket (multiaxial or triaxial)

A

hip and shoulder

cup shaped depression

round structure that tucks into depression

86
Q

codylar (ellipsoid) joint (biaxial)

A

rounded structure is more elliptical than round

cant rotate

fingers that connect to hand

87
Q

plane (gliding) joint (multiaxial) (or nonaxial)

A

between short bones

bones of hand or feet

cant go far but can move (slide)

some say that the singular joint cant move

most common joint in body

vertebrae above and below and with rib

88
Q

hinge joint (uniaxial)

A

only flew and extend

elbow

toes and fingers

89
Q

pivot joint (uniaxial)

A

rotate

lower arm

cervical vertebrae

90
Q

saddle joint (biaxial)

A

some don’t recognize, some identify a lot

at bone of thumb

flex and extend

abduct and adduct

91
Q

Active transport

A

Requires ATP

Against concentration gradient

Puts where it already has a lot of substance

Carrier protein required

ATP hydrolyzed releasing energy

Split water

Take off one phosphate to make ADP

Breaking ATP apart means allowing to move against gradient

92
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

Facilitated diffusion

Polar

Polar

acts to maintain gradient

higher [Na+] outside cell

higher [K+] inside cell

Ratio Na+ to K+ transported is three to two

Every time three Na+ moves out of cell

everytime move 2 K+ into cell

Significant energy expenditure by cell (around fifty percent)

Moving ions around

pump: Moves against gradient, changes shape, when open to inside cell Na+ binds and K+ leaves, When open to outside cell Na+ leave and K+ attach

93
Q

leak channels

A

Don’t have a gate

Sodium potassium leeks with concentration gradient

always open

94
Q

Gated channels

A

Requires ATP

Particular conditions when open

Mostly closed

outweigh leak channels

95
Q

the membrane potential

A

potential: create situation for whats necessary in future. difference of concentration of ions inside and out. energy to do work
resting: Not contracting/ sending impulse
1. cell membrane compartmentalizes ions
2. concentration gradients established
3. ions passively move through selective, gated channels
4. relative concentrations constant
5. difference in charge between two areas creates potential energy

96
Q

cell membrane compartmentalizes ions

A

make barriers

cant go in or out without channel

97
Q

relative concentrations constant

A

[Na+] always higher outside cell

[K+] always higher inside cell

quantity of ions moving a tiny fraction of total ions present

if 15 seconds to leave classroom those closer to door/back of room will be able to leave, rest of people wont

98
Q

difference in charge between two areas creates potential energy

A
  1. measure of cell’s ability to do work-energy
  2. resting membrane potential for neurons typically -70 mV
  3. ions moving, steady state, net flux=0
  4. Na+ and K+ leak channels (K+ permeability higher)
99
Q

measure of cell’s ability to do work-energy

A

charge difference creates potential energy

membranes separates charges

100
Q

resting membrane potential for neurons typically -70 mV

A

typical for neurons

KNOW THIS NUMBER: 70 charges less

when send impulse- becomes positive for a second

less positive inside than outside

always compared inside to outside

Relative:reference point. ions inside cell don’t move- are negative

101
Q

ions moving, steady state, net flux=0

A

at rest, ions moving across membrane. movement in=movement out

102
Q

Na+ and K+ leak channels (K+ permeability higher)

A

K+ permeability > Na+ permeability

all ions are + charges

103
Q

why 3Na when K leak is so much better?

A

inside of cell relatively negative, attracts positive ions like Na+

symport carrier proteins Transports in glucose and sodium tags along

Na changes places in cell with H out of cell. may be necessary to control pH

104
Q

neuron anatomy

A

controls skeletal muscles- in spinal cord

  1. cell body
  2. dendrites with ligan-gated and voltage-gated ion channels
  3. axon arises from axon hillock (also called trigger zone), many voltage-gated Na+ channels
  4. myelination
  5. form connections (synapses) with target cells
105
Q

cell body

A

most cell of nucleus

106
Q

dendrites with ligan-gated and voltage-gated ion channels

A

extensions

info enters/picked up

smaller/numerous

receive info

107
Q

axon arises from axon hillock (also called trigger zone), many voltage-gated Na+ channels

A

axon

only 1

carries impulse to next cell

goes to muscle it controls from spinal cord

trigger zone

has to achieve threshold

when threshold is reached, behavior change

a point at which change behavior

gated channels

allows for ions to diffuse

change ion distribution

can close

voltage

change in charge

for neuron cells: -70 will open, at -55 is the threshold. -60 closed, -65 closed, -55 open

ligand

chemical

when chemical attaches to gate it opens

108
Q

myelination

A

schwann cells

independent cells

layered around axon-myelin

of membrane

phospholipids

polar ions cant leak out

insulates

allows impulses to travel faster

109
Q

environment of neuron

A

outside/around: higher Na+; inside high in K+

110
Q

synaptic potentials

A
  1. Communication between axon (sends message) and dendrite (receives message)
  2. graded potentials versus action potentials
  3. depolarization
  4. repolarization
  5. hyperpolarization
  6. excitatory post synaptic potential
  7. inhibitory post synaptic potential
  8. response can be very localized
  9. response can be additive
  10. cell body integrates all postsynaptic potentials
111
Q

Communication between axon (sends message) and dendrite (receives message)

A

Neuro transmitter opens the gates (voltage) for Na+

presynaptic- chemically gated

post-voltage gated

axon terminal-where axon ends

synaptic knob- very end of axon, carry info to cell body

presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron- cells never touch (synaptic cleft)

112
Q

graded potentials versus action potentials

A

stimulus small=response small

vice versa

on postsynaptic cell

113
Q

depolarization

A

lessen

lessen change difference

EPSP

114
Q

repolarization

A

go back to starting point

115
Q

hyperpolarization

A

excessive

making change difference even greater/ more pronounced

IPSP

116
Q

excitatory post synaptic potential

A

EPSP

depolarization

toward threshold

more likely to send impulse/contract

117
Q

inhibitory post synaptic potential

A

IPSP

hyperpolarization

less likely to send impulse/contract

away from threshold

if inhibitory doest work causes tremor disorders

118
Q

response can be very localized

A

ions dont travel very far from entry point

get trigger zone to threshold

119
Q

response can be additive

A

lots of sgnals-both inhibitory and excitatory signals add up

temporal summation

stimulus close to second

run together

rapid succession

adding together

bigger change

spatial summation

stimulations at multiple places on cell at same time
if didn’t have multiple wouldn’t reach threshold

if didn’t have multiple wouldn’t reach threshold

120
Q

cell body integrates all postsynaptic potentials

A

subthreshold

suprathreshold and all the subthreshold

graded

below threshold

suprathreshold and all the all or none principle

all or none

action potential

above threshold

121
Q
A

A&P (5 decks)

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