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A&P > A&P Exam 1 > Flashcards

A&P Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is anatomy

A

study of structure or form

(not simply identification by name or location)

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2
Q

what is physiology

A

study of function

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3
Q

why are anatomy and physiology interdependent

A

at all levels of organization

how its built determines its ability/function

if we alter anatomy at any level we alter the physiology

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4
Q

levels of organization

A
  1. atoms
  2. molecules
  3. macromolecules
  4. organelles
  5. cells
  6. tissues
  7. organs
  8. organ systems
  9. organisms
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5
Q

Molecules

A

O2, CO2- amino acids

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6
Q

macromolecules

A

group of amino acids

phospholipids

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7
Q

cells

A

macromolecules together

shape determines function

different sizes

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8
Q

tissues

A

cells together

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9
Q

organs

A

tissues together

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10
Q

homeostasis

A

maintenance of a relatively constant interval during exposure to a changing external environment

stressor: anything that threatens homeostasis-changes internal environment

dynamic state in which body’s internal environment is maintained with normal range

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11
Q

internal environment

A

Includes extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid

stressors

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12
Q

homeostatic mechanism

A
  1. receptors
  2. control center
  3. effectors
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13
Q

receptors

A

pick up on levels

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14
Q

control center

A

knows what levels ought to be

set point

initiates response

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15
Q

effectors

A

muscles-contract

glands-secrete

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16
Q

feedback

A
  1. negative feedback
  2. positive feedback
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17
Q

negative feedback

A

stops the action

turns in the opposite

discourages

stimulus reversed

reverses trends

very common

routine maintenance of homeostasis

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18
Q

positive feedback

A

encourages the actions

encourages the trend

encourage same behavior

continue trend

infrequent, not abnormal

specific short lived functions

ex) childbirth- tissues stretch, contractions strengthen

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19
Q

organization of human body

A
  1. appendicular portion
  2. axial portion
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20
Q

appendicular portion

A

appendages

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21
Q

axial portion

A

head trunk
A. dorsal cavity
- backbone side, posterior
- cranial cavity
- vertebral canal (spinal cavity)

B. Ventral cavity
- belly side, front/ anterior
- thoracic cavity
- above diaphragm
- abdominopelvic cavity
- below diaphragm
- divided by diaphragm

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22
Q

membranes of ventral cavity

A
  1. parietal membranes
  2. thoracic cavity
  3. abdominopelvic cavity
  4. visceral membranes
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23
Q

Parietal membranes

A

Line body cavities

inside

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24
Q

thoracic cavity

A

parietal and visceral pleura

pleural cavity, serous fluid

Found within the thoracic cavity

Think chest

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25
Q

abdominopelvic cavity

A

Parietal and visceral peritoneum

Peritoneal cavity, serous fluid

Found within the abdominal pelvic cavity

Think abdominopelvic pelvic

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26
Q

visceral membrane

A

Cover organs within body cavities

outside

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27
Q

relative position

A
  1. superior/ inferior
  2. anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal)
  3. medial/lateral/bilateral/ipsilateral/contralateral
  4. proximal/distal
  5. superficial/deep
  6. anatomical position
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28
Q

superior/ inferior

A

Above, below

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29
Q

anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal)

A

Front, back

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30
Q

medial/lateral/bilateral/ipsilateral/contralateral

A

Middle, outside, one on each side, same side of body, opposite side of body (contrasting)

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31
Q

proximal/distal

A

Closer, further

only appendages

Look at attachments

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32
Q

superficial/deep

A

Muscles on left side are relatively deep to muscles on the right side

Muscles on the right side are relatively superficial to muscles on the left side

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33
Q

anatomical position

A

Standardized

Standing erect

Facing forward

Upper limbs at sides

Palms forward

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34
Q

body sections

A
  1. sagittal
  2. transverse
  3. frontal/coronal
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35
Q

sagittal

A

left/right
midsagittal (median)
parasagittal

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36
Q

transverse

A

horizontal
cross section
superior/inferior

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37
Q

frontal/coronal

A

coronal
front/back

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38
Q

cylindrical organs

A
  1. oblique section
  2. cross section
  3. longitudinal section
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39
Q

oblique section

A

cut at an angle
anything else

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40
Q

cross section

A

short axis

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41
Q

longitudinal section

A

long section

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42
Q

cell membrane

A

inside and outside of cell
compartmentalize and store
1. general characterics
2. cell membrane structure
3. proteins
4. cholesterols and membrane fluidity

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43
Q

general characterics cell membrane

A
  1. maintains integrity of cell
  • maintains structure
  1. controls entry and exit (selectively permeable)
  • fat soluble is okay
  • water soluble keep out

ex) 28x higher potassium than outside

  1. responsible for compartmentalization

-allows for storage for later

  • compartments have special jobs
  • efficiency
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44
Q

cell membrane structure

A
  1. phospholipid bilayer, hydrophobic tails, hydrophilic heads
    -tails face in
    -oil layer inside
    -head faces out
    -triglyceride
    -fatty acid chain (lipid)-not water soluble
    -saturated (straight)
    -unsaturated (bends-double bond)
    -phospholipid
    -take off bottom and replace with something with phosphorus
    -makes it water soluble
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45
Q

cell membrane proteins

A
  1. integral proteins
  2. peripheral proteins
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46
Q

integral proteins

A

transmembrane protein

ways for substances that aren’t fat soluble to go across membrane

way built determines what it transports

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47
Q

peripheral proteins

A

outside or on surface

doesnt span through

receptors

receive

shape determines what receive

enzymes

help chemical reactions take place

has to have particular shape to interact with certain substances at body temperature

cell surface proteins

self identification

carbohydrate chains

organ transplant and rejection

different self identification proteins

identify as you and your cells

cellular adhesion molecules

holds cells together

some permanent, some temporary

48
Q

cholesterols and membrane fluidity

A

liver makes it

every membrane has it

steroid hormones

in with fatty acid tails

fills in gaps created by bends

membrane integrity and fluidity

tucks into spaces that are created when body temperature rises

tucks into gaps of bent tails of unsatisfied fatty acids

49
Q

molecular transport

A
  1. random molecular motion
  2. differences in concentration establish a gradient
  3. membrane permeability
    MOST POLAR MOLECULES ARE NOT LIPID SOLUBLES
50
Q

random molecular motion

A

molecules in entropy (random motion)

51
Q

differences in concentration establish a gradient

A

gradient cant go from high to low

difference

the molecules go with the gradient

bigger gradient= bigger movement immediately

gross: all molecules on both sides

net movement: the gain or loss

52
Q

membrane permeability

A

non polar substances (gases, lipids)

electrons are shared equally

ex) oxygen

polar substances (carbohydrates, proteins, charged ions)

electrons are not shared equally

ex) water & ions

transmembrane proteins assist

53
Q

physical (passive) movements into and out of the cell

A
  1. (simple) diffusion
  2. movement is with (or down) concentration gradient
  3. physiological “steady state” reached
  4. factors that influence rate of diffusion (“flux”)
  5. facilitated diffusion
  6. specialized transport protein required
  7. movement with concentration gradient
  8. osmosis
  9. filtration
54
Q

(simple) diffusion

A

permeable: allowed to go through

random movement, eventually equal out

no cellular required

gradient

molecules move with gradient

membrane permeable to everything

55
Q

factors that influence rate of diffusion (“flux”)

A

distance (membrane thickness)

thicker-slower

thinner-faster

size of concentration gradient

bigger gradient - bigger movement immediately

smaller gradient- smaller movement immediately

drink a lot of water- dilute (lower concentration), less concentration, ions move at less pronounced rate

temperature

warmer- faster

colder-slower

56
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

ions polar

helps diffusion

no energy required

still go with gradient

57
Q

specialized transport protein required

A

channel proteins

doesn’t have to interact, opening

gated

open and closes

respond to ligand, voltage, or mechanical force

carrier proteins

pick up /interact with whatever transporting

conformation shape change

has attachment site

changes shape when transports molecules across the cell membrane (change in physical conformation)

finite number- saturation is possible- all the carriers for particular molecule are occupied (full)

saturation possible

58
Q

osmosis

A

water

have to have barrier that is selectively permeable

diffusion of water molecules (yes water is polar but it is a very small molecule)

selectively-permeable membrane required

allows water molecules through

does not allow protein through

water moves with its gradient

net movement

high water—> low water

low solute —> high solute

osmotic pressure

ability to lift volume of water

water powerful

greater solutes = greater osmotic pressure

higher solute= higher osmotic pressure

relative solutions

hypertonic= relatively higher osmotic pressure (relatively more solutes)

greater

shrinks

surrounding solution relatively hypertonic

hypotonic= relatively lower osmotic pressure (relatively fewer solutes)

low

swell

surrounding solution relatively hypotonic

relatively more water

isotonic= similar osmotic pressure (similar concentration of solutes)

equal

surrounding solution relatively isotonic

59
Q

filtration

A

passive

hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure)

molecules (the filtrate) forced through porous membranes

if small enough

concentration differences is not important; size of molecule is

hydrostatic forces apply, movement is bulk flow (not random)

60
Q

cell to cell interactions in the extracellular matrix

A
  1. tight junctions
  2. desmosomes
  3. hemidesmosomes
  4. gap junctions
61
Q

tight junctions

A

Firmly and closely held together

ex) Shirt scene, continuous stitch

No gaps or spaces

62
Q

desmosomes

A

ex) Buttons holding cloth

gaps

Something can travel in spaces

Each cell has a portion with cells coming together as one

63
Q

hemidesmosomes

A

So held to extracellular matrix

important for Epithelial tissues

64
Q

Gap junctions

A

space

Passageway

cytoplasms of cells are connected and can flow back and forth

Cell to cell communication

smooth and cardiac muscle

65
Q

Categories of tissues

A
  1. epithelial tissues
  2. connective tissues
  3. muscle tissues
  4. nervous tissue
66
Q

epithelial tissue

A

Tightly packed single (simple) or multiple (stratified) layers of cells

on surface

cell squamous, cuboidal, or columnar

cover organs, line body cavities

form protective barrier

attached to basement membrane

lack blood vessels

reproduce rapidly

bottom most cell attached to basement membrane (plasma membrane) by hemidesmosome

diffusion- limited by distance (thickness)-get nutrients through passive transport

67
Q

connective tissue

A

cells widely spaced

fibroblast

make protein fibers

macrophages

consume debri- hangout in connective tissue

intracellular material (matrix) fluid (blood) to solid (bone)

protein fibers may be present in matrix

collagenous (collagen) fibers

bundles of thick, flexible fibers

bend, dont stretch

thin collage fibers are called reticular fibers

elastic (elastin) fibers

stretchy

rebound to where started

68
Q

muscle tissue

A

muscle cells= muscle fibers

many protein filaments in cytoplasm

capable of contraction

not all require neural input
nucleus on inside not outside

69
Q

functions as the integumentary system

A

coverings & linings- all

keep water in

keep infectious agents out

Protection and immunity

exteroception (sensation)

regulation of body temperature

vitamin D production

excretion (minimal)

70
Q

Tissues associated with the skin

A
  1. simple cuboidal epithelium
  2. stratified squamous epithelium
  3. glandular epithelium
  4. adipose tissue
    5.areolar (loose) connective tissue
  5. irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
  6. smooth muscle
71
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium

A

Cells anchored to membrane (hemidesmosomes) to connective tissue

Tight junction holds cell to next cell, doesn’t leak sweat

72
Q

adipose tissue

A

Adipocyte (Started as fibroblasts but specialized to store fat)

Cushioning

Temperature regulation

binds skin to what’s underneath
has blood vessels
tight junction

73
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A

bottom layer held to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes

sales connected to each other by Desmosomes - For duct of sweat gland to go around cells to get to surface

74
Q

areolar (loose) connective tissue

A

Ground substance, like jello

Collagen fibers provide strength

Stretchy

Find things together, dermis to epidermis

Find muscle to muscle, upper part of Dermis

75
Q

irregular dense fibrous connective tissue

A

lower part of Dermis

A bunch of protein fibers packed tightly together randomly, mostly collagenous protein fibers

strong

Apply stress in all directions without tearing

76
Q

smooth muscle

A

Proteins inside cell

held together by gap junctions

Bounded by cell membranes

Really coordinated actions with cell to cell communication

not voluntarily controlled

77
Q

layers of the skin

A
  1. epidermis
  2. dermis
78
Q

layers of epidermis

A

layers of epidermis

border not straight across

undulating border has more surface area= more diffusion

different colors: cells on bottom thriving and active, as get further from blood supply-not living= tan color

  1. stratum basale (stem cells and melanocytes)
  2. stratum spinosum (keratinocytes and dendritic cells)
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. stratum lucidum (present in cornified skin only)
  5. stratum corneum

fat soluble skincare items get down to living layer while other kinds are too big of molecules.

79
Q

stratum basale

A

(stem cells and melanocytes)

born

thrives

ages

gets pushed up

1 layer of cells

going through cell division

attached to basement membrane

80
Q

stratum spinosum

A

(keratinocytes and dendritic cells)

still new

produce protein- keratin- make skin waterproof- keratinocytes

different shape

81
Q

stratum granulosum

A

starting to die and shrink up

organelles start to fail

look like grains of sand

82
Q

stratum lucidum

A

(present in cornified skin only)

sometime with thicker parts- transparent gap

ex) bottom of foot

83
Q

stratum corneum

A

on surface

non living membrane bound keratin sac

sacs of keratin- give waterproof property

84
Q

keratinization

A

keratinocytes- produce keratin

make skin waterproof

85
Q

melanocytes, melanosomes, and skin color

A
  1. eumelanin
  2. pheomelanin
  3. melanosome
  4. melanocyte

lighter skin- more vitamin D- better reproduction and development of fetus

darker skin- closer to equator- more folic acid- without causes spina bifida- dark skin protects folic acid- otherwise sun destroys

86
Q

eumelanin

A

true

brown

87
Q

pheomelanin

A

reds

most people don’t have

88
Q

melanosome

A

membrane bound sac of pigment

transferred to skin

89
Q

melanocyte

A

cellular extensions- can use because held by desmosome not tight junction

color of skin changes due to activity of melanocytes-DNA determines

90
Q

layers of dermis

A

collagen and elastin

  1. dermal papillae
  2. loose (areolar) connective tissue of papillary (upper) layer
  3. irregular fibrous connective tissue of reticular (lower) layer
  4. muscle (skeletal and smooth)
  5. blood vessels
  6. nerves (sensory and motor)
  7. various accessory organs (details later)
    note: the subcutaneous layer or hypodermis is not a layer of the skin. it is the tissues beneath the skin
91
Q

dermal papillae

A

epidermal ridges and dermal papillae

fingerprints

lip prints

92
Q

loose (areolar) connective tissue of papillary (upper) layer

A

collagen and elastin- some of both

space

elasticity

93
Q

irregular fibrous connective tissue of reticular (lower) layer

A

Irregular dense fibers connective tissue-collagen-dense-fiber in every way-tough-withstand forces in every direction

94
Q

muscle (skeletal and smooth)

A

Erector pilli muscle (smooth muscle)-attaches to hair follicles

95
Q

hypodermis or subcutaneous layer

A

no definite border

gradual increase of adipose tissue

96
Q

accessory organs of the skin

A
  1. hair follciles
    - anatomy
    -follicle structure
    - arrector pili muscle
  2. physiology
  3. glands
    -sebaceous glands
    -sweat (sudoriferous glands
    hypodermis- adipose tissue- glands are deep in dermis up against hypodermis
97
Q

sebaceous glands

A

Lots of cuboidal cells

Associated with hair follicles

Secret product to bathe hair follicles in oily product to make pliable and soft hair

Entire cell ruptures, cell membrane is broken, cells lost, have to replace faster than other styles (holocrine style)

98
Q

sweat (sudoriferous) glands

A
  1. eccrine or merocrine glands
  2. apocrine glands
99
Q

eccrine or merocrine glands

A

Exit surface of skin through pore

Temperature regulation

Will not lose any parts of the cell. We’ll just lose secretory product

100
Q

apocrine glands

A

exit surface of scan associated with the hair follicle

Active after achieving puberty

Make product that makes odors involved in sexual attraction

Lose part of the cell

101
Q

glands are

A

epithelial tissue

have exposed surface (exocrine glands)

cuboidal, columnar, squamous

rapid continuous cell division

102
Q

body temperature regulation

A
  1. importance
  2. heat production and loss
  3. role of negative feedback
  4. problems in temperature regulation
103
Q

heat production and loss

A
  1. warm to cool
  2. physical methods
  3. physiological methods
104
Q

physiological methods of heat production and loss

A

-alteration of blood flow
-muscular activities
- sweat glands, hairs

105
Q

physical methods of heat loss and production

A
  • radiation
    -conduction
    -convection
    -evaporation
106
Q

radiation

A

gain heat through sun

107
Q

conduction

A

physical contact

body temp to chair

108
Q

convection

A

something in motion

ex) wind

warm air around body moved away by breeze and replaced by cool air

109
Q

evaporation

A

sweating

water—>vapor

requires energy

energy lost as heat

sweat has to dry to evaporate and cool

110
Q

alteration of blood flow

A

Blood vessels in Dermis

Diameter change

large=more volume==cooling- Less blood at core and more at surface- body radiates heat away from body-dissipates heat

Blood vessels narrow= Less volume at surface= Less body heat dissipated

111
Q

muscular activities

A

Involuntary

Skeletal muscle is the main source of body heat

Maintain muscle mass to maintain body temperature

112
Q

sweat glands, hairs

A

Sweat glands are active and secret when body temperature is higher

Sweat glands are inactive when body temp is lower because we don’t want the sweat to dry due to it taking heat with it

Aging effects body temp by messing with sweat glands and skeletal muscle

small kids Have more surface area compared to volume so that also affects body temperature

113
Q

problems in temperature regulation

A
  1. hyperthermia
  2. hypothermia
114
Q

hypothermia

A

Body temperature decreases

80 degrees

Affects the cell membrane by causing it to be tight and having more rigidity which causes ionic movement to slow down and diffusion to slow down affecting heart rhythm causing heart arrhythmia

114
Q

hyperthermia

A

Body temperature increases

106 degrees

Heat exhaustion is when you start to feel unwell and should stop activity

Heat stroke is when you stop sweating and can start shivering

When temperature is high it starts to violate the cell membrane and the cell fluidity. Small intestine will start to breakdown due to fluidity making and allowing bacteria to enter the bloodstream causing sepsis

115
Q

follicle structure

A

tubular

modification of epidermal tissue

behave like epidermis-has cells like epidermis

bottom (base) layer of rapid cell division

next, layer that’s thriving- gains color

next, layer that’s nonliving-what we see

accumulate keratin-waterproof

116
Q

arrector pili muscle

A

smooth muscle

attaches to base

contract- stand more upright

traps air at surface

A&P (5 decks)

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