Exam 4 Flashcards
Nerve terminals go to dendrites next door ; synaptic connections are between neurons
Axodendretic
goes ot the cell body of the cells
Axosomatic
Goes to the axon hillock cna add mv
Axoaxonal
NT’s are classified based on
Chemical structure
What are the biogenic amines
Dopamine, norepinehrine, epinephrine, seratonin , histamine
What are the excitory amino acids
glycine, aspartate, and glutamate
What is the main inhibitory amino acid
GABA
What are the main neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Biogenic Amines
Amino acids
Where is smooth muscle found
In the walls of hollow organs
Main characteristics of smooth muscle
No neuromuscular junctions
innervated by autonimic nerves
- have varicosities
-wide synaptic cleft
- less developed SR
- no t-tubules
Where are some places contractions occur in
Bladder
uterus
rectum
bronchi –> asthma
stomach –> cramps
involuntary alternating of contraction/ relaxation of muscle sheets
Peristalsis
Are spindle shaped
have one central nucleus
much smaller than skeletal cells
sheets found in hollow organs except capillaries
Smooth muscle cells
One sheet of muscles cells runs parallel to long axis or organ
- contraction –> dialation –> elongation
Longitudinal layer
fibers run around circumference of organ- contraction –> constriction –> elongation
Circular layer
The lumen gets shorter and wider when muscles cells of the _______ layer constricts
Longitudinal
The lumen gets smaller when the muscles cells of the ______ layer constrict
Circular
What stores calcium in muscles cells
The Caveoli
An electrical network that is between each sheet of smooth muscle and release neurotransmitters into a wide synaptic cleft
Varcosities
What type of junctions are in smooth muscles
Gap junctions
What is area 22 in the brain
Wernicke’s area
Are the controls the muscles needed for speech (tongue, throat, lips, etc)
Broca’s Area
What is area 44 and 45 in the brain
Broca’ s Area
Damage to the Broca’s Area causes….
Broca’s Aphasia
Person can understand language but cannot produce intelligible language. (motor issue)
Broca’s Aphasia
Where speech is interpreted and understood
Wernicke’s area
Loss of ability to understand written or spoken language and produce coherent word sequences (word salad - the person doesn’t know what you are saying so random words are put together)
- Normal grammar, syntax, rate, and intonation is used but randomly put together
Wernicke’s Aphasia
How are the Borac’s area and Wernicke’s Area conncted
By the arcuate fasiculus
Where did Broadman start when finding the 52 areas of the brain?
Post Central Gyrus
What area is area 8 in the brain?
The frontal eye field
Where is the Primary Somatosensory cortex located
The Post Central Gyrus of parietal lobe areas (1-3)
What is the part of the brain that is receiving the electrical current from all the sensory Nuerons in the skin, muscles, and joints
Primary Somatosensory Cortex (2, 3, 1)
What is the cortex that is posterior to the Primary somatosensory cortex?
Somatosensory Association Cortex (5,7)
Function is the integrate sensory information and involves the interpretation/ memory of a particular sensation
- SSC is used for to recognize the sensation of the object
Somatosensory Association Cortext
Where is the Primary visual cortext located?
area 17 (occipital lobe
Where is the Visual asossitation area located?
Beside the visual cortex in the occipital area ( 18)
area that is responsible for neurons that immediately respond to electrical current that is coming out of the optic nerve that comes from the retinas
Primary Visual Cortex
Interprets visual stimuli using stored memory for recognition (memory of the things we see)
Visual association area (area 18)
What type of blindness does damage to area 17 (occipital lobe) causes
Cortical Blindness
Where is the primary autidtory area located in the brain?
Above the temporal lobe
This area receive sensory information and damage can result in deafness
- pitch/ loudness
Primary Auditory Area (41, 42)
Where is the auditory association area located?
Behind the Primary Auditory cortex
This area uses stored memory to interpret perceived sound ( memory of things we hear)
- Music, Thunder, Trains, airplanes
Auditory association area (42 and 22)
Where is the olfactory cortex located?
In the frontal lobes (medial temporal) above the orbits
This area is where sense of smell is percieved and allows us to be aware of different smells
Olfactory Cortex
Where is the Gustatory Cortex loacted
Inferior parietal lobe
This area is where sense of taste is perceived and allows us to be aware of different taste
Gustatory Cortex
Where is the memory of smells and taste stored
In the limbic system aka. emotional brain
What cortex is in the insula and processes information that keeps us in balance in all three planes we move in
Vestibular Cortex
What is the cortext that is in the anterior frontal lobe and is involved with intellect, personality, judgement, etc.
-Makes us who we are
The prefrontal context
Damage to this part of the brain can cause mental and personality disorders
Prefrontal cortext
What are graded depolarizations called in excitatory synapse
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP’s)
Where the neurotransmitters released at the presynaptic membrane causes depolarization at the postsynaptic membrane.
Excitatory Synapses
Where the neurotransmitter release at the presynaptic membrane causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane
- less likely to reach threshold
Inhibitory Synapses
What are graded hyperpolarizations called
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (ISPS’s)
this nuerotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junctions - excitatory and is degraded by AchE
Acetylcholine
What are examples of biogenic Amines
Dopamine, Norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin histamine
What are the inhibitory amino acids
GABA
What are the excititory amino acids
Aspartate, glycine, glutamate
What is a local depolarization of the post synaptic membrane that brings the neuron closer to action potential threshold and allows sodium and potassium to pass simultaneously when a neurotransmitters binds to it.
Excitatory synapse
what makes a molecule a nuerotransmitter?
It is made and release by a neuron and there is a receptor on a postsynaptic membrane that the molecule can go to .
Hollow chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid, lined with ependymal cells and are continous with each other and the central canal
Ventricles
What is made by the choroid plexus
Cerebrospinal fluid
Clusters of leaky blood capillaries covered in pia mater and ependymal cells
choroid plexus
What are other functions of cerebrospinal fluid
- floats the brain
- forms a liquid cushion
- helps transport molecules
- completely replaced every 8 hours
What is 83% of total brain mass
Cerebral hemispheres
“gyri”
Ridges
” Sulcus”
Grooves
What divides the left and right hemisphere of the brain
The longitudinal fissure
What are the 5 lobes of the brain
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
Insula
what divides the frontal and parietal lobes
the central sulcus
What divides the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes
The lateral sulcus
What divides the parietal and occipital lobes
the parietal-occipital sulcus
What seperates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
The transverse cerebral fissure
What are the three functional areas of the cerebral cortex
Motor, sensory, association
Different histological and functional areas of the cortex where specific motor and sensory functions are separated into domains
Broadmann’s 52 area
The cerebral cortex is made of mostly…
interneurons which are small neurons that connect 1 neuron to another
What are the critical areas that control motor functions
- Primary motor cortex
- Premotor cortex (secondary motor cortex)
- Broca’s area
- Wernicke’s area
- Frontal eye field
Located in the precentral gyrus of frontal lobe (area ) and has the biggest motor neurons that control contralateral voluntary movement of skeletal muscle
Primary motor cortex
Trauma to this area can result in the loss of voluntary control
Primary motor cortex
Located in the anterior/ precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe (area 6)
Premotor cortex (secondary)
Controls learned motor skills and coordinates movement of groups of muscles by sending impulses to the primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex
aka = memory bank for skilled motor actitives
Trauma to this area cna result in loss of programmed motor skills but not individual movements
Premotor cortex
Found in the left hemisphere (area 44, 45) and controls that muscles needed for speech (tongue, throat, lips)
Broca’s Area
Damage to this area cause a person to be able to understand language but cannot produce intelligible language
- labored speech
- halting and disjointed words
Broca’s Aphasia
Where speech is interpreted and understood (area 22) and coherent speech is produced
Wernicke’s area
Damage to this area causes loss of the ability to understand written or spoken language and produce coherent word sequences.
- Normal grammar syntax rate, and intonation
- word salad
Wernicke’s Aphasia
What connects wernicke’s area to broca’s area?
Arcuate fasiculus
Controls voluntary eye movement (area 8)
Frontal eye field
Area controlling sensory input in skin, muscles, and joints sensation
- Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Located in the post central gyrus of parietal lobe ( areas 1-3) and receives afferent information from somatosensory receptors ( skin, joints, and muscle)
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
What are the primary brain vesicles
The prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and the rhombencephalon
What are the secondary brain vesicles
telecephalon, diencephalon, esencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon
Cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclclei)
Cerebrum
adult brain strucutre that has the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and retina
Diencephalon
brain stem: midbrain
Mesencephalon
Brain stem: pons
Metencephalon
where is the cerebellum?
In the metencephalon
Brain stem: medulla oblongata
Myelencephalon
Short nonmyelinated neurons and cell bodies
Grey matter
Myelinated and non myelinated axons
White matter
What separates the two c shaped lateral ventricles that are deep in each hemisphere and are close together anteriorly
Septum Pellucidum
What connects the third and fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
What was originally the tip of the neural tube?
The telencephalon
what is the deep part of the cerebral hemispheres
diencephalon
what are collectively called the corpus striatum?
The caudate, the putamen, and the globus pallidus
What is collectively called the Lentiform Nuclei?
The putamen and the globus pallidus
what are the group of strucutres that make up the basal ganglia/ nuclei
- The caudate
- The Putamen
- The globus Pallidus
- The subthalamic nucleus
- The substantia Nigra
What is the basla ganglia major involved in?
Muscle movement, muscles coordination and are the connection between voluntary and motor cortex
What is Huntingtons Diease
Destruction of the basal ganglia and causes uncontrolled, wild, jerky movements which can appear to be voluntary but are not
What is Parkinsons Disease
over activity of the basal ganglia that impaires motor skills and congnitive processes due to degeneration of the substantia Nigra and leaves the corpus striatum overactive
- No enough dopamine for smooth coordinated muscle movement
Misfiring of the basal ganglia
- no muscle coordination
Dystonia
What are the nuclei of the Thalamus?
Anterior Nuclei
Reticular Nucleus
Pulvinar
Medial geniculate
Lateral Geniculate
ventral nuclei (3)
Dorsal Nuclei (3)
What is the function of the lateral geniculate body
It processes vision by picking up electrical current from optic nerves and sending it back to area 17, the primary visual cortex ( vision is sensory information and all sensory information goes through the thalamus)
What is a pathology that could occur as a result of damage to the thalamus?
Fatal familial/sporadic insomnia
What is the main visceral control center of the body?
The hypothalamus
Connect gray matter of both hemispheres
ex. the corpus callosum with the anterior and posterior ______
Commissures
Connects the brain to spinal cord (vice versa)
ex. connects internal capsule cortex to lower CNS
Projection Fibers
What is is called when fibers get closer to the cortex and begin the fan out?
Corona Radiata
Collections of nerve and ell bodies in the CNS
Brain Nuclei
What is the function of the basal ganglia
Receives input from entire cerebral cortex by communicating and projecting to the premotor + prefrontal cortex
Which lobe of the brain contain the gustatory cortex?
The insula
What brain structure separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes
Lateral Sulcus
what cortex has neurons whose axons carry motor commands from the cerebrum
Primary motor Cortex
Where is the Choroid plexuses located?
The Ventricular System ( each of the ventricles )
Which part of the brain is the “executive suite and controls consious brain activity?
The Cerebral Cortex
True or False: The term “cerebral dominance” designated the hemisphere that is dominant for language
True
What type of fibers communicate between the left prefrontal lobe and the left parietal lobe
Association Fibers (within hemisphere)
Which type of white matter fibers connect the cerebrum to lower centers like the spinal cord?
Projection fibers
Connect different parts of the same hemisphere
Association fibers
Connect grey matter of both hemispheres
i.e corpus collsum
Commiseral fibers
Connect cortex to the rest of the nervous system
Projection fibers
Which part of the CNS is almost all sensory information ascending to the cerebral cortex?
The Thalamus
Components of the Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
Pineal Gland
What are the functions of the hypothalamus?
Regulates food intake
Regulates emotional responses
Regulates body temp
What is the membraneous encasement that surrounds the brain
Meninges
Which landmark separate the cerebrum from the cerebellum?
transverse fissure
Which landmark divides that cerebrum in half
Longitudinal Fissure
What are the nuclei of the thalamus?
- 3 dorsal nuclei: medial dorsal, lateral dorsal, lateral posterior
- 3 ventral Nuclei: Ventral anterior, Ventral lateral, ventral posterio-lateral
- anterior nuclei
- reticular nucleus
- Pulvinar
- Medial and lateral geniculate body
What connects the left and right hemispheres together?
Corpus callosum
Opening between lateral and 3rd ventricle that releases CSF
Inter-ventricular foramen
Which nuclei of the hypothalamus is responsible for making hormones
Paraventricular nucleus
Which nuclei in the hypothalamus is responsible for short term memory processing and can withold moderate trauma?
Mammillary Body
What are the 7 functions of the hypothalamus?
- regulates autonomic nervous system
2 .emotions - body temp: thermoreceptors (temp change)
- regulates hunger and satiety
- regulates water balance and thrist
- regulates sleep - wake up cycles
- control of the endocrine system
What are the parts of the diencephalon?
The thalamus, hypothalamus and the epithalamus
Which nuclei of the hypothalamus plays a part in human sleep/wake cycle
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
What are some pathologies related to the hypothalamus?
Anorexia / obesity
sleep disturbances
dehydration
emotional imbalances
What hormone does the suproptic nucleus of the hypothalamus release to cause the kindey to retain water?
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
What can recieve projections from the SCN related to light/ dark cycles and releases melatonin
Epithalamus
which of the following are in the tectum?Wh
- colliculi
corpora quadragemina
Where is the substantia nigra located?
In the midbrain
what is the function of the superior colllculi?
reflex responses to vision
- coordination head and eye movement for tracking objects
reflex responses to sound
- relays nerve impulses from the ear to the primary auditory cortex (startle reflex)
Functionof the Collculi
Relay center for descending motor pathways that cause limb flexion
Function of Red nuclei
recticulr formation is heavily involved in what?
Waking up and keeping an individual alert
What are the parts of the recticular formation in the medulla oblangata
Lateral and medial nuclear group and the raphe nucleus
What is the white matter that is a tract of axons from the hippocampus to the mammillary body and is associated with long term memory
The Fornix
In ability to coordinate voluntary motor movements
Ataxia
Deficiency to understand speech
Dysphasia
difficulty swallowing
Dysphagia
difficulty with speech
Dysarthria
Uncontrolled shaking as a task us performed
- tremors with movement
Intention Tremor
Connects the medulla to the cerebellum and convey sensory information information to the cerebellum from muscle propiceptors and vestibular nuclei of the brain stem (equilibrium)
Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles
Contain large descending pyramidal (corticospinal) motor tracts
Cerebellar Peduncles
Carry-one way communications from the pons to the cerebellum, advising it of motor activities initiated by the motor cortex
Middle Cerebellar Peduncles
Connects the cerebellum and the mid brain and carries instructions from neurons into the deep cerebellar nuclei
(no direct connections to the cerebral cortex)
Superior Cerebellar Peduncles
Where do cerebellum peduncles go?
the cerebella
Where do cerebral peduncles go?
the cerebral hemisphere
What best describes the function of the cerebellum
calculates appropriate force and direction of intended muscle movements
What are the Meninges
Dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
head and eye movements associated with visual and auditory reflexes are controlled by which brainstem region?
Midbrain
Put the following structures in order to summarize the common flow of CSF from the site of formation to its reabsorption to its return to cardiovascular circulation
1. Cerebral aqueduct
2. Choroid Plexus
3. median aperture
4. Subarachnoid space
5. superior sagittal sinus
2 - 1 - 3 - 4 - 5
Where is CSF made?
the lateral 3rd and Fourth Ventricles where choriod plexus is located.
What three lobes are the cerebellum divided into
Anterior, Posterior, and Flocculonodular
Creates smooth, coordinated muscle movement and integrates info from premotor cortex with peripheral sensory info
Cerebellum
What strucutre in the limbic system connect the temporal lobes and transfers information between two hemispheres
anterior commissure
The _________ responds to perceived threats: agression, jealousy, and facial expression, wheras the _________ _______ expresses our emotions through gestures
Amygdala; cingulate gyrus
Thick dura mater membrane that forms a tent over cerebellum
Tentorium cerebelli
Leathery, toughest layer of the meninges and is composed of two layers
- periosteal layer
- meningeal layer
Dura mater
sheet of the dura mater that goes dow longitudinal fissure and divides left and right hemispheres
Faix Cerebri
What part of the dura mater is where arachnoid granulations take CSF back to blood supply
Superior sagittal sinus
attached to the inner surface of skull, not found around the spinal cord
Periosteal layer
External covering of brain and continues down the spine
Meningeal layer
Which areas if the brain constitute the metencephalon?
The brain steam: pons and cerebellum
What structure connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?
The cerebral Aqueduct
Which of the following is a function of cerebrospinal fluid?
- gives the brain buoyancy
- cushions the brain
- helps nourish the brain
The anterior frontal lobe is involved in which function
intellect recall and personality
Which of the following fiber tracts would connect the left hemisphere to the right hemisphere?
Corpus Callosum
Which of the following brain nuclei is located in the Telencephalon
The basal ganglia
Which of the following nuclei belong to a group called the Corpus Striatum?
The caudate, the putamen, the globus pallidus
What is the function of the basal ganglia
They play an indirect role in starting and stopping movements
What is the cause of huntingtons disease?
degradation of the basal nuclei / ganglia
What are symptoms of parkinsons disease?
Persistent tremor
Lateralization refers to dominance for which cerebral function
Language
What is the Decussation of the pyramids?
It is the crossover of the corticospinal tracts
Which cerebral cortex is a gateway for almost all sensory information going up to the cerebral cortex?
Thalamus
Pyramidal motor neurons can be found in what region of the brain
-The precentral gyrus
-the cerebral peduncle
- the decussation of the pyramids
What brain nuclei coordinates head and eye movements to trak a moving object
Superior Colliculi
What of the following areas of the brain houses the nuclei that regulate the cardiac, vasomotor and respiratory centers
Medulla Oblongata
Which of the following is considered part of the Limbic System
The posterior nucleus of the Thalamus
the septal nucleus
the hypothalamus
the mammillary body
Which of the following is not considered a part of the limbic system
The posterior commissure
The arachnoid villi are out-pouching of the:
arachnoid mater
The arachnoid villi are located in the…
Superior sagittal sinus
Which of the following covers both the sulci and gyri of the brain
pia mater
Which of the following is prevented from entering the brain tissue by the BBB
Proteins, toxins, and drugs
Which of the following can cross the BB and move freely from the blood to the brain tissue
Oxygen, alcohol, and nicotine
The spinal cord ends around
L1
Neurons of which fibers are located in the inferior cerebellar peduncles
Neurons located in the Spinocerebellar tract
What is the function of the choroid plexi?
to make CSF
A malfunction in which of the following nuclei could cause terminal insomnia
The thalamus
what is the location of the respiratory center?
The medulla oblongata
Which areas if the brain constitute the telecephalon?
The cerebrum
Which areas of the brain constitute the diencephalon?
thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, retina
Which areas of the brain constitutes the mesencephalon
Brain stem: midbrain
what areas of the brain constitutes the myelencephalon?
Brain stem: medulla oblongata
What areas of the seconday brain originated from the proencephalon?
Telencephalon and diencephalon
What areas of the secondary brin originated from the mesencephalon
the mesencephalon
What areas of the secondary brain originated from the rhombencephalon
the myelencephalon and the metencephalon
Which area of the brain has an outer layer of grey matter
Cerebellum and cerebrum
What is not a major role of the spinal cord
to process sensory information in order to produce autonomic responses and subconscious behaviors
What is the difference between reflexes and other actions in which the spinal cord is involved
Reflex don’t involve the brain, only the spinal cord
Connections between two pathways
interneurons
interneurons are able to stimulate tissue through the use of …
neurotransmitters
Which of the following accurately describes the direction of an impulse moving through a neuron that carries information to the central nervous system (CNS) from the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
An afferent neuron, impulse moving proximally
significant damage to the veteran’s cerebellum. The damage would result in difficulty with which of the following functions?
coordination of movement
Areas of the brain that are involved in the diffuse cortical projection of dopamine
ventral tegmentum, hypothalamus, and substantia nigra
In which of the following areas do sorting and editing of sensory impulses take place?
Thalamic nuclei
Which of the following is a function of the pons?
Contains nuclei that relay information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
The mid brain develops from which secondary brain vesicle
Mesencephalon
What is NOT a function for the hypothalamus
- regulation of sleep wake cycles
- autonomic control
-food intake regulation
- balance
- body temperature regulation
balance
What is the center for balance?
the cerebellum
What is a function of the basal nuclei
Starting, stopping, and monitoring arm swinging and gait
What is the largest commissure in the cerebral cortex and is composed of white matter.
Corpus callosum
Which of the following is an autonomic control center
- midbrain
- pons
-hypothalamus
- diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Which part of the brain regulates thirst?
Hypothalamus (osmoreceptors in this area are activated when body fluid is too concentration which stimulates thirst recpetors
What part of the brain produces dopamine
Substania nigra
( gets its name from the high content of melanin which is a precursor of dopamine)
What is NOT a feature of the cerebral cortex?
- it is arranged in six layers
- it is composed of white matter
- it accounts for 40% of brain mass
- its convoluted surface triples its surface area
It is composed of white matter
Which part of the cerebellum is involved in planning (rather than executing) movement?
the lateral part of each hemisphere
All the following are functions of the amygdaloid body EXCEPT __________.
- resolving mental conflit
- recognition of fear
- memory
assessment of danger
resolving mental conflit
Reduced cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a shortage of which neurotransmitter?
acetylcholine
Deep brain stimulation via implanted electrodes has been used to treat some of the symptoms of
Parkinsons disease
The 2 layers that separate in certain areas where there are spaces called sinuses
Periosteal layer and meningeal layer
what type of menigitis is causes by Pneumoniae and Neisseria menigitis
Bacterial Menigitis
blood vessles in the blood brain barrier are impreamable because of
Tight junctions
What are the three layers molecules have to pass through to get to the brain?
- endothelium of the capillary wall
- the basal lamina
- the arms of astrocytes holding onto the capillaries
Where is the BBB absent?
Around the 3rd and 4th ventricle
