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Histology > Exam 3 Blue Boxes > Flashcards

Exam 3 Blue Boxes Flashcards

1
Q

Where is squamous cell carcinoma commonly induced on?

A

the exposed, unpigmented vermillion borders of the lips

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2
Q

What are cancers of the tongue and mouth associated with?

A

age, tobacco, and alcohol

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3
Q

How do cancers of the oral mucosa present?

A

as leukoplakia or red patches

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4
Q

Squamous cell carcinoma risk increases with ___.

A

age

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5
Q

What happens when bacteria metabolize sugar to organic acids and erode the adjacent enamel?

A

tooth decay

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6
Q

Is decay into enamel painful?

A

NO

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7
Q

Is tooth decay into dentin painful?

A

YES

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8
Q

What happens to decay that extends into the pulp?

A

it often causes infection and the tooth may be lost

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9
Q

What is the bacterial colonization of the sulcus that causes local inflammation called?

A

periodontitis

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10
Q

What gets damaged in periodontitis that tends to migrate deeper into the alveolus?

A

the gingival attachment

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11
Q

Does gingivitis cause permanent damage to the bone structures?

A

NO - but periodontitis does

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12
Q

Periodontitis exposes ___ and the tooth becomes sensitive to pain.

A

dentin

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13
Q

What is the major source of tooth loss in adults?

A

periodontitis

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14
Q

What embryologic layer is the GI tract derived from?

A

endoderm

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15
Q

What portion of the GI tract is supplied by the celiac artery?

A

foregut: esophagus down to the second part of the duodenum

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16
Q

What portion of the GI tract is supplied by the superior mesenteric artery?

A

midgut: from the third part of the duodenum to the Cannon’s point in the transverse colon

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17
Q

At what point does the midgut end in the transverse colon?

A

at Cannon’s Point

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18
Q

What portion of the GI tract is supplied by the inferior mesenteric artery?

A

hindgut: from Cannon’s point in the transverse colon to the rectum

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19
Q

Where is visceral pain in the midgut felt?

A

the periumbilical region

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20
Q

Where is visceral pain felt in the hindgut?

A

the suprapubic area

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21
Q

Where is pain from acute appendicitis felt?

A

in the periumbilical region, then later in the right iliac fossa

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22
Q

Why does pain from acute appendicitis later localize to the right iliac fossa?

A

because of inflammation of the peritoneal surface

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23
Q

Where is pain from the foregut felt?

A

in the epigastrium

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24
Q

What contributes to the motility of the GI tract?

A

peristalsis

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25
Q

What is the role of the circular layer of muscle in the GI tract?

A

constriction of the luminal diameter

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26
Q

What is the role of the longitudinal layer of muscle in the GI tract?

A

shortening of the length of the GI tract

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27
Q

The autonomic nervous system is primarily ___ innervation.

A

parasympathetic

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28
Q

____ disease is failure of the ganglionic cells to migrate, usually in the rectum and distal colon.

A

Hirschsprung’s

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29
Q

___ disease causes chronic and severe constipation and patients may develop progressive dilation of the bowel.

A

Hirschsprung’s

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30
Q

In the severe form of Hirschsprung’s disease, there are no ganglionic cells present in the bowel leading to an _____.

A

aganglionic megacolon

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31
Q

Opiates can cause severe ____.

A

constipation

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32
Q

Reflux through the gastroesophageal sphincter that allows gastric acid into lower esophagus is called ___.

A

Barrett’s esophagus

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33
Q

When the columnar, mucus-secreting epithelium of the esophagus undergoes re-epithelialization over time, it is referred to as ____.

A

metaplasia

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34
Q

The risk of dysplasia and invasive adenocarcinoma are conferred from ____.

A

Barrett’s esophagus

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35
Q

What does the mucosa of the stomach secrete?

A

hydrochloric acid and protective alkaline mucus

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36
Q

___ is the inflammation of the stomach due to an imbalance between stomach secretions.

A

Gastritis

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37
Q

____ is the complete loss of mucosa and may extend into the proximal duodenum.

A

Ulceration

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38
Q

___ is the loss of part of the thickness of mucosa.

A

Erosion

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39
Q

Gastritis and peptic ulceration may be caused by alcohol, drugs, or ____.

A

Helicobacter pylori

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40
Q

What is parasympathetic innervation carried by?

A

the Vagus nerve

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41
Q

The release of ____ acts on parietal cells and allows the production of acid.

A

acetylcholine

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42
Q

What cells does acetylcholine act on in the stomach?

A

parietal cells

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43
Q

Gastrin is released from ___.

A

G-cells

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44
Q

____ are produced in response to rising gastric pH levels.

A

Gastrin

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45
Q

___ act via CCK2 receptors on parietal cells.

A

Gastrin

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46
Q

What does histamine do in the stomach?

A

increase acid secretion

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47
Q

____ reduces the secretion of gastrin in the stomach.

A

Somatostatin

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48
Q

Somatostatin is released from ____.

A

D-cells

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49
Q

How can Helicobacter pylori survive the acidic environment of the stomach?

A

the bacterial enzyme urease

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50
Q

Urease produces ammonia, which ___ pH.

A

raises

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51
Q

What does a higher pH stimulate in the stomach?

A

secretion of gastrin by G-cells, which act on parietal cells to increase acid production

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52
Q

What happens during a Helicobacter pylori infection?

A
  • H. pylori secrete urease
  • Urease raises gastric pH
  • Higher pH stimulates G-cells
  • G-cells increase acid production
  • excess stomach acid produced
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53
Q

How is a Helicobacter pylori infection treated?

A

triple therapy (2 antibiotics and a proton pump inhibitor)

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54
Q

___ is the mixing of chyme with pancreatic enzymes to break up foods.

A

Luminal digestion

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55
Q

___ include the enzymes of enterocytes.

A

Membrane digestion

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56
Q

___ is the autoimmune response to gluten (gliadin).

A

Celiac disease

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57
Q

Malabsorption of gluten that leads to weight loss, diarrhea, steatorrhea, anemia, and vitamin deficiencies are all symptoms of ____.

A

Celiac disease

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58
Q

What can become damaged in the GI tract from Celiac disease?

A

mucosa of small intestine and the loss of villi and elongation of crypts

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59
Q

What types of antibodies are found in the blood of those afflicted with Celiac disease?

A

anti-endomysial antibodies

tissue transglutaminase antibodies

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60
Q

___ are malignant tumors in the glandular epithelium, mostly found in the colon or rectum.

A

Adenocarcinomas

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61
Q

Repeated liver cell destruction causes the liver to replace dead liver cells with collagen tissue regeneration. This scarring disease is called ____.

A

Hepatic cirrhosis

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62
Q

___ is the combination of nodules of regenerated liver cells separated by bands of scar tissue.

A

Cirrhosis

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63
Q

Do regenerated liver cells have reduced function?

A

YES

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64
Q

Regenerated liver cells have ___ synthesis of albumin and secretion of bile.

A

lower

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65
Q

The scarring and interruption of the sinusoidal system causes ____.

A

portal hypertension

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66
Q

In ___, blood cannot drain from the liver via the hepatic portal vein.

A

portal hypertension

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67
Q

What are the causes of liver cirrhosis?

A
  • chronic alcohol abuse
  • chronic hepatitis
  • autoimmune diseases
  • excessive storage of iron and copper due to metabolic disease
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68
Q

What two elements can cause liver cirrhosis if excessively stored?

A

iron, copper

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69
Q

Do adult livers have hemopoietic tissue?

A

NO

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70
Q

In ____, hepatic hematopoiesis can be re-established if normal marrow is inadequate for fetal function.

A

extramedullary hematopoiesis

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71
Q

___ is the accumulation of hematopoietic precursor cells in the spleen.

A

Extramedullary hematopoiesis

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72
Q

What organs are most frequently enlarged in extramedullary hematopoiesis?

A

liver and spleen

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73
Q

Where does hematopoiesis normally occur in adults?

A

bone marrow

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74
Q

What are the causes of extramedullary hematopoiesis?

A
  • fibrosis of bone marrow
  • replacement of bone marrow by malignancy
  • hemoglobinopathy
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75
Q

Where does hematopoiesis normally occur in infants and children?

A

liver and spleen

76
Q

A genetic disorder of hemoglobin formation is called a ____.

A

hemoglobinopathy

77
Q

___ is the abnormal concentration and precipitation of bile, leading to the formation of stones in the biliary system.

A

Cholelithiases

78
Q

What are these stones in the gallbladder or extrahepatic biliary system called?

A

callculi

79
Q

Can stones become impacted?

A

YES

80
Q

The complete blockage of the common bile duct, preventing bile secretion can cause ____.

A

jaundice

81
Q

Gall bladders affected by stones become inflamed and cause pain. What is this condition called?

A

chronic cholecystitis

82
Q

Damage to pancreatic acinar cells release pancreatic enzymes into local tissue. These enzymes cause death of tissue and severe inflammation. What is this condition called?

A

acute pancreatitis

83
Q

Damage to what cells in the pancreas can lead to acute pancreatitis?

A

acinar cells

84
Q

What enzyme cause death of local fat cells in fat necrosis of of the pancreas?

A

pancreatic lipases

85
Q

What pancreatic enzyme can be detected in high levels in the blood?

A

pancreatic amylase

86
Q

Is acute pancreatitis a life-threatening condition?

A

YES

87
Q

Is renal failure acute or chronic?

A

could be either

88
Q

Is irreversible renal failure fatal?

A

YES - unless there is renal replacement therapy

89
Q

What are the current options for renal replacement therapy?

A

renal dialysis or renal transplantation

90
Q

Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are both options for ___.

A

renal dialysis

91
Q

___ requires a suitable donor, a long wait.

A

Renal transplantation

92
Q

What must a donor and a recipient have in common to be able to be “matched?”

A

HLA-compatibility

93
Q

Can a patient survive with just one kidney?

A

YES

94
Q

What is the most common cause of renal failure in affluent countries?

A

diabetic neuropathy

95
Q

In patients with diabetic renal disease, what type (I/II) is usually present?

A

Type II

96
Q

What is one of the earliest signs of diabetic renal disease?

A

proteinuria

97
Q

What can proteinuria progress to?

A

nephrotic syndrome and progressive chronic renal failure

98
Q

The thickening and increase of what two components are demonstrated in diabetic renal disease?

A

thickening of mesangial basement membrane and increase in mesangial matrix

99
Q

Diabetes can cause progressive scarring of glomeruli. What is this condition called?

A

diabetic glomerulosclerosis

100
Q

In normal ____, the balance between the deposition of new mesangial matrix and removal of old matrix is tightly controlled.

A

glomeruli

101
Q

What chemical mediator induces the increased deposition of mesengial matrix in response to high glucose levels?

A

TGF-beta

102
Q

Does mesengial matrix have a different composition than normal matrix?

A

YES

103
Q

What types of collagen are present in increased amounts in mesangial matrix?

A

Type I and Type III

104
Q

What types of collagen are not easily removed from the glomerulus?

A

Type I and Type III

105
Q

What other factors can contribute to the characteristic proteinuria seen prior to renal failure?

A
  • direct podocyte injury

- changes in the slit pore membrane

106
Q

Hypertension and increased infections to the kidney are vascular diseases that ___ suffer from in tandem.

A

diabetics

107
Q

Hypertension is most common in what populations of individuals?

A

middle-aged and elderly people

108
Q

Is hypertension considered mostly idiopathic?

A

YES

109
Q

Do younger patients suffer from hypertension?

A

YES - especially surrounding renal disease

110
Q

Many types of renal disease can lead to ___.

A

hypertension

111
Q

__ is often seen in patients with post-infectious glomerulonephritis.

A

Acute hypertension

112
Q

Diabetic nephropathy or IgA nephropathy contribute to ___.

A

secondary hypertension

113
Q

Can hypertension lead to renal failure?

A

YES

114
Q

Chronic, untreated low-level hypertension can lead to chronic renal damage. What is this pattern called?

A

benign nephrosclerosis

115
Q

Can benign nephrosclerosis lead to chronic renal failure?

A

YES - patient may even need a renal replacement

116
Q

Do pituitary adenomas invade tissues?

A

NO

117
Q

Do pituitary adenomas have fatal consequences?

A

YES

118
Q

In a patient with a ____, they excessively produce hormones that are unable to be controlled by feedback mechanisms.

A

pituitary adenoma

119
Q

Tumors of corticotrophs secrete excess ____; tumors of somatotrophs secrete excess ____.

A

ACTH; growth hormone

120
Q

ACTH stimulates the adrenals to produce ____.

A

corticosteroids

121
Q

What does overstimulation of the adrenals by ACTH lead to?

A

Cushing’s disease

122
Q

What does excess production of growth hormone lead to?

A

gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults

123
Q

Do all pituitary adenomas produce additional hormones?

A

NO - some grow outwards to the sella turcica

124
Q

What does growth into the sell turcica lead to?

A

compression of optic chiasma and nerves that can lead to vision problems and blindness

125
Q

What are the consequences of a pituitary gland with a blocked arterial supply?

A

necrosis of cells and failure of hormone output

126
Q

What is the necrosis of pituitary cells and failure of hormone output called?

A

panhypopituitarism

127
Q

Are pituitary glands often destroyed by blocked arterial supply?

A

NO

128
Q

The production of excess growth hormone in children is called ___; in adults, it is called ___.

A

gigantism; acromegaly

129
Q

___ is the formation of tumor-like nodules in the thyroid gland.

A

Thyroid hyperplasia

130
Q

____ synthesize and secrete thyroid hormone without a significant inactive storage phase.

A

Follicle epithelial cells

131
Q

What disease causes the production of autoantibody, such as long-acting thyroid stimulator (LATS)?

A

Graves disease

132
Q

What does LATS mimic? What does it cause?

A

TSH; stimulates the thyroid to secrete excess hormone

133
Q

___ means that all follicles are affected.

A

Diffuse hyperplasia

134
Q

____ hyperplasia is when tumor-like nodules arise in the thyroid gland; ____ hyperplasia is when all thyroid follicles are affected.

A

Nodular; diffuse

135
Q

What kind of thyroid hyperplasia has epithelial cells that are larger and active, yet depleted of stored colloid located within the follicles?

A

Diffuse hyperplasia

136
Q

Both patterns of thyroid hyperplasia produce ____.

A

thyrotoxicosis

137
Q

In a normal thyroid, most follicles are ____ and epithelium is ____.

A

full of stored colloid; in inactive storage phase

138
Q

In a normal thyroid the epithelium is in what kind of phase?

A

inactive storage phase

139
Q

In a normal thyroid, what are the follicles full of?

A

stored colloid

140
Q

How much of the thyroid is releasing hormone?

A

only a few are releasing hormone

141
Q

What is the normal thyroid under the control of? Where is this hormone secreted from?

A

thyroid-stimulating hormone; anterior pituitary

142
Q

In _____, the parathyroid glands are overworked.

A

hyperparathyroidism

143
Q

What is the most common cause of hyperparathyroidism?

A

presence of a benign tumor in one of the parathyroid glands

144
Q

What is a benign tumor in one of the parathyroid glands called?

A

parathyroid adenoma

145
Q

What would likely cause the unresponsiveness to normal feedback mechanisms related to blood calcium levels?

A

a benign tumor in one of the parathyroid glands

146
Q

Excess ____ stimulates excess erosion of bone by OCl, along with the release of bone calcium.

A

parathormone

147
Q

What is the condition called where excess bone erosion leads to a high level of blood calcium?

A

hypercalcemia

148
Q

___ leads to bone pain, x-ray abnormalities, and an increased risk of kidney stones.

A

Primary hyperparathyroidism

149
Q

____ is the secondary response of parathyroid glands to low Ca in patients with kidney failure.

A

Secondary hyperparathyroidism

150
Q

In ____, the parathyroids become enlarged, secrete excess parathormone and attempt to bring serum Ca levels back to normal.

A

secondary hyperparathyroidism

151
Q

___ stimulates the release of calcium into the blood.

A

Parathormone

152
Q

What is it called when the parathyroid glands become enlarged?

A

parathyroid hyperplasia

153
Q

What does the secretion of excess parathormone aim to do?

A

attempt to bring serum Ca levels back to normal

154
Q

___ is when the parathyroid glands underwork and produce little to no hormone?

A

Hypoparathyroidism

155
Q

When would a patient likely be afflicted with hypoparathyroidism?

A

after the surgical removal of all parathyroid glands during a total thyroidectomy

156
Q

Destruction of the adrenal glands causes failure of secretion of all adrenal cortical hormones. This is called ___.

A

hypoadrenalism

157
Q

What disease caused by hypoadrenalism has symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, skin pigmentation issues, postural hypotension, hypovolemia, and low blood sodium?

A

Addison’s disease

158
Q

Which is more common of the two? Hypoadrenalism or hyperadrenalism?

A

hyperadrenalism

159
Q

___ is the condition where there is excess secretion of more than one cortical hormone.

A

Hyperadrenalism

160
Q

Cushing’s syndrome is caused by the excess secretion of ____; Conn’s syndrome is caused by the excess secretion of ____.

A

glucocorticoids; mineralcorticoids

161
Q

Excess hormone of the adrenal cortex can be produced by:

A
  • benign tumor
  • malignant tumor
  • diffuse hyperplasia
162
Q

A benign tumor of the adrenal cortex is called an ____.

A

adrenal cortical adenoma

163
Q

A malignant tumor of the adrenal cortex is called an ____.

A

adrenal cortical carcinoma

164
Q

An ____ can affect all 3 types of cortical hormones, including androgens.

A

adrenal cortical carcinoma

165
Q

____ occurs when a tumor elsewhere in the body secretes excessive amounts of ACTH which in turn act to produce excess glucocorticoids.

A

Ectopic ACTH syndrome

166
Q

What does an ectopic ACTH tumor stimulate to produce excess glucocorticoids?

A

zona fasciculata

167
Q

The ____ in the pancreas contain endocrine cells which secrete hormones, namely insulin.

A

Islets of Langerhans

168
Q

___ is a disease of insulin metabolism.

A

Diabetes Mellitus

169
Q

___ diabetes begins in childhood and islet cells are destroyed due to an autoimmune response.

A

Type I

170
Q

___ diabetes results in a loss of endocrine cells in pancreatic islets.

A

Type I

171
Q

____ has a widespread effect on carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism and its absence leads to complex metabolic and structural diseases.

A

Insulin

172
Q

____ diabetes occurs later in life and is caused by the resistance of target cells to the effects of insulin.

A

Type II

173
Q

Which type of diabetes is NOT caused by a failure of insulin production by pancreatic islets?

A

Type II

174
Q

Insulin-secreting tumors produce ____ with hypoglycemic symptoms.

A

hyperinsulinism

175
Q

Is disease rarely produced from the excessive secretion of one of the isle hormones?

A

YES

176
Q

What is the most common tumor of the diffuse neuroendocrine system?

A

small cell (oat cell) carcinoma

177
Q

____ tumors retain the capacity to make and secrete hormone or hormone precursor molecules.

A

Small cell (oat cell) carcinoma

178
Q

Small cell carcinomas secrete ____, which stimulate the uncontrolled secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex.

A

ACTH

179
Q

____ carcinomas are highly malignant tumors of the neuroendocrine cells of the bronchial tree.

A

Small cell (oat cell)

180
Q

Do small cell carcinomas grow rapidly and infiltrate and destroy tissue?

A

YES - nearly all tissues

181
Q

Where would you find neuroendocrine cells?

A

in the bronchial tree

182
Q

Where are carcinoid tumors most common?

A

in the alimentary tract (especially in small intestine and appendix)

183
Q

Do carcinoid tumors grow slowly?

A

YES

184
Q

What do carcinoid tumors secrete? Does this have a systemic effect?

A

5-hydroxytryptamine; NO

185
Q

Why does 5-hydroxytryptamine have no systemic effect when secreted from a carcinoid tumor?

A

because 5-hydroxytryptamine is passed from the tumor to the gut and into the hepatic portal vein, where it is inactivated by the liver via processing

186
Q

Can carcinoid tumors spread to secondary sites away from the gut?

A

YES - when malignant

187
Q

____ is when 5-hydroxytryptamine is able to enter the blood and produces metabolic effects.

A

Carcinoid syndrome

Histology (6 decks)

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