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Systemic Physiology > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Transduction

A

taking a sensory stimulus and converting it into an action potential, made possible through sensory receptors of different kinds

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2
Q

What signal does the nervous system understand

A

an action potential

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3
Q

Signal transduction systems

A

some first messenger outside of the cell changes or leads to something in the cell such as some protein kinase activity

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4
Q

Mechanoreceptor

A

receptor that responds to a mechanical stimulus

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5
Q

Chemoreceptor

A

receptors that respond to a chemical stimulus

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6
Q

Noiceptors

A

change chemical signals in the environment that indicate there’s damage to other tissues

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7
Q

Prostaglandin and potassium

A

are primary chemical signals nocieptors pick up on, potassium is in high concentration inside the cell so when the cell is lysed open the nocieptors will detect the potassium

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8
Q

Photoreceptors

A

receptors that respond to a change in activity of rods and cones

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9
Q

Sensory receptive field

A

an area of internal/external environment that a sensory receptor responds to, there’s an overlap of receptive fields of sensory receptors and the field is variable in size

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10
Q

Sensory receptors

A

produce receptor potentials which are graded potentials that may or may not lead to an action potential

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11
Q

Sensory receptors specialized endings

A

they will change the activity of the cell leading to change in activity of the CNS, most nervous system cells are like this as are most nociceptors

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12
Q

Specialized endings

A

pick up a stimulus or stimulus energy and act on an individual cell which will then signal another cell

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13
Q

Sensory neuron cell body in the CNS

A

will send out a process to the periphery that will receive to some part of the skin, free nerve endings radiate in the skin and will pick up on pain signals

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14
Q

Sensory neuron cell body in the periphery

A

will change the activity of another neuron which will then signal to the CNS, as seen with the eyes

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15
Q

Receptor potential

A

graded potentials, that may or may not lead to an action potential if the graded potentials summate and reach threshold

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16
Q

When will graded potentials and receptor potentials be recorded in a sensory neuron

A

before myelination starts, myelination will start at the axon hillic and everything before then is a graded potential (EPSP/IPSP), after receptor potentials the action potentials will be recorded in the nodes of ranvier starting at the first node of ranvier

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17
Q

Stimulus intensity and receptor potential and action potentials

A

as the stimulus intensity increases the receptor potential amplitude will increase as graded potential amplitude is dependent on the amount of stimulus, an increase to stimulus intensity the frequency of action potentials increase

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18
Q

Pressure and action potentials

A

the brain can distinguish between the amount of pressure on the skin based on the frequency of action potentials

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19
Q

Principles of sensory system organization

A

specific sensory receptor types are sensitive to certain modalities and submodalities, specific sensory pathways code for a particular modality or submodality, specific ascending pathways are crossed so that sensory information is generally processed contralaterally, the thalamus is the brain’s sensory relay station, specific ascending pathways are subject to descending control

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20
Q

Exceptions to contralateral control

A

vision and gustatory

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21
Q

Thalamus

A

all sensory information except the sense of smell will go to the thalamus first and after it will go to specific cortical areas

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22
Q

Ascending vs Descending

A

ascending is sensory and descending is motor as seen in the cross extensor reflex

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23
Q

Cross extensor reflex

A

if you were to step on something you have to lift your foot up and the quadriceps of the other leg has to tense up

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24
Q

Visible light spectrum

A

400nm to 750nm, as wavelength increases energy decreases, as approach blue the energy increases

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25
Q

Eye layers

A

sclera, choroid, retina

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26
Q

Sclera

A

outside layer, the white of the eye, the connective tissue

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27
Q

Cornea

A

the transparent continuation of the sclera as the anterior portion of the sclera bulges, non vascularized (if it was vascularized we’d see pink and red), consists of layers of translucent epithelial cells

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28
Q

Anterior chamber

A

between the cornea and the iris, holds aqueous humor

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29
Q

Aqueous humor

A

fluid which will give oxygen to the cornea through diffusion, more viscous than plasma of the blood

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30
Q

Posterior chamber

A

between the iris and the lens, holds aqueous humor

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31
Q

pupil

A

opening that allows for movement of fluid between the posterior chamber and the anterior chamber

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32
Q

Iridocorneal angle

A

where the cornea and the iris meet

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33
Q

Canal of Schlemm

A

small duct that connects with vasculature allowing aqueous humor to/from the anterior chamber, promotes circulation of the aqueous humor

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34
Q

Glaucoma

A

the blocking of the canal of schlemm such that the aqueous humor is unable to move from the chambers and enter the vasculature leading to intraocular pressure building

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35
Q

Lens

A

behind the iris and in front of the posterior chamber, avasculur, flattened translucent epithelial cells, connected to zonular fibers, is a circular structure

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36
Q

Zonular fibers

A

also known as suspensory ligaments or fibers of zonn, extend from the lens and connect to ciliary muscles

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37
Q

Ciliary muscles

A

also known as ciliary bodies smooth muscle extensions of the choroid

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38
Q

Choroid

A

Middle layer, vasculaturized, vessels are visible through the sclera

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39
Q

Eye drops

A

vasoconstrict the vessels found within the choroid to reduce redness of the eyes

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40
Q

Vitreous chamber

A

in the back of the eye containing vitreous humor, holds the retina in place and provides oxygen and glucose to avascular structures

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41
Q

Retina

A

bowl of cells that cover the back 2/3 to 3/4 of the eye, ganglion cells exit in the form of the optic nerve to send information to the SNC and other parts of the brain

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42
Q

Fovea Centralias pit

A

found in the center of the retina, within it is the macula ludea (yellow spot) is the area with the most acute vision

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43
Q

Macular degeration

A

loss of cells that respond to light found within the macula ludea

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44
Q

Blind spot

A

also known as the optic disc, there’re no photoreceptor cells here

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45
Q

Diabetics and eyes

A

opthamologists will want to see the vasculature of the eyes because micro aneurisms can develop leading to hemorrhage and the cells of the retina could become ischemic leading to the detachment of the retina

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46
Q

First layer of the Retina

A

retinal pigmented epithelialium layer, dark pigments will absorb stray wavelengths of light, epithelial tissue that connects the retina to the choroid

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47
Q

Low energy wavelengths

A

are harmful and when they aren’t picked up by photoreceptors in the retina they are picked up by the dark pigments within the RPE

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48
Q

Second layer of the Retina

A

Photoreceptive layer, rods and cones, photoreceptors imbed themselves into the epithelial aided by cilia as the epithelium is heavily ciliated

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49
Q

Third layer of the Retina

A

Outer limiting membrane, not a membrane but an artifact of photoreceptor extensors as it makes its way to the epithelial, when the retina is stained it appears as if there’s a line here due to photoreceptor extensions of cell bodies (rod/cone shaped) exit the cell body, all of the parts of the cell except the receptor are similar in shape,

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50
Q

Fourth layer of the Retina

A

cell bodies of rods and cones, very defined shapes of the rods and cones

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51
Q

Fifth layer of the Retina

A

Outer plexiform layer, connections/synapses between photoreceptors and other types of cells found in the retina, very lightly stained area

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52
Q

Sixth layer of the Retina

A

Inner nuclear layer, made of mainly bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells

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53
Q

Bipolar cells

A

have two processes that extend off the cell body

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54
Q

Ratio of photoreceptor to inner nuclear cell to ganglion cell

A

is not 1:1:1 as there’re intricate connections of the cells in the inner nuclear layer to other cells

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55
Q

Seventh layer of the Retina

A

Inner plexiform layer, connections/synapses between inner nucleon layer with ganglion cells

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56
Q

Eighth layer of the Retina

A

ganglion cell layer

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57
Q

Ninth layer of the Retina

A

Optic nerve fiber layer, axons from the ganglion cells will exit the eye in the form of an optic nerve

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58
Q

Tenth layer of the Retina

A

Inner limiting membrane, thin layer of epithelial cells htat are in direct contact with the vitreous humor/body

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59
Q

Accomodation

A

the ability of the lens to change shape to focus light onto the back of the eye

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60
Q

Look at an object in the distance

A

ciliary muscles are relaxed giving tension to the zonular fibers which pulls on the lens to stretch or flatten

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61
Q

Look at an object close up

A

the parasympathetic nervous system activates the ciliary muscles which slackens the zonular fibers leading to the lens being more rounded or football like

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62
Q

Near point of Accommodation

A

for normal 20-23yr old’s it is about 10 cm away and increases with age

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63
Q

Gmmetropica

A

normal vision, light comes in and hits the retina at a focal point, 20/20

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64
Q

Myopia

A

near sighted, light comes to a focal point before the retina, due to failure of accomodation of the lens or the eye is too long, corrected with divergent/concave lens to spread the light out, 20/(<20)

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65
Q

Hypermetropia

A

far sighted, light comes to a focal point behind the retina, corrected with a convergent/convex lens, due to failure of accomodation of the lens or the eye is too short, as you age you become presbyopia (hypemetropia)

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66
Q

Amblyopia

A

lazy eye due to damage of extraocular muscles

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67
Q

Rods and Cones

A

Rods are primarily located toward the periphery while cones are in the center of the retina, there’s an overlap of receptors, there’s one type of rod and three types of cones, there’re more rods than cones (120mill rods:6mill cones), rods are more sensitive to light than cones, cones allow to see in color and rods see in shades of grey

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68
Q

Light and photoreceptors

A

light comes in through the pupil and passes through the retinal layers and change the firing rate of photoreceptors who will then communicate with those in the inner nuclear layer which will communicate to the ganglion cell layer and send information out via the optic nerve to move the signal into the brain, photoreceptors respond to a distribution of wavelengths

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69
Q

Dark current

A

photoreceptors maintain a dark current when there’s no light, the photoreceptors are depolarized (sodium and calcium channels are kept open by cGMP created by guanylyl cyclase), bipolar cells are inhibited and membranes are hyperpolarized, glutamate will be released and bind onto metabotrophic receptors to promote hyperpolarization of ganglion cells by primarily opening potassium channels thus inhibiting the ganglion cells and therefore the axons from the ganglion cells will not send signals to the brain

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70
Q

Photoreceptors in the light

A

Tranducin will undergo a conformation change into retinal which will then be imbedded into opsin, the g protein will be activated by the conformation change and activate cGMP dependent phosphodiesterase which will break down cGMP to GMP, calcium and sodium channels will then close and the membrane will hyperpolarize, bipolar cells are disinhibited and depolarized, ganglion cells are activated and axons send signals to the brain

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71
Q

Tranducin

A

g protein coupled receptor, ligand dependent

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72
Q

Retinal and Opsin

A

collectively they are a photopigment within the photoreceptors called rhodopsin, retinal is essentially vitamin A

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73
Q

cGMP dependent Phosphodiesterase

A

can be inhibited by caffeine

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74
Q

Phosphodiesterase

A

is a huge family of enzymes with numerous types, in the peripheral nervous system it can lead to changes in diameter of blood vessels

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75
Q

Sildenafil citate

A

commonly known as viagra, originally used to treat high blood pressure and has a side effect of sudden decrease or loss in vision of one or both eyes, it is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, it was made to interaction with periphery phosphodiesterases but because there’re multiple types of phosphodiesterases it also interacted with phosphodiesterases found more centrally, within the eye leves of cGMP remain high and therefore the photoreceptor remains depolarized

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76
Q

Lateral geniculate nucleus

A

six layers of cells that are bent in the shape of the knee located away from the midline of the thalamus

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77
Q

Two halves of the retina

A

temporal hemiretina and nasal hemiretina, nasal hemiretina axons are contralateral while temporal hemiretinal axons are ipsilateral, the L temporal hemiretina and R nasal hemiretina gathers information from the R visual field

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78
Q

Optic tract damage

A

you won’t be able to see one side of the visual field

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79
Q

Optic chiasm

A

after the cross are the optic tracts, the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is right above this point, and the pituitary gland is right below and slightly towards the right

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80
Q

Glandular components

A

the hypothalmus and the pituitary gland are glandular components mainly associated with the endocrine system

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81
Q

Adenoma

A

benign growths of grandular tissues

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82
Q

Hyperclasisticity

A

increase in size and number of cells which make prolactinoma within the pituitary which causes a prolactinoma the most common adenoma

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83
Q

Prolactin

A

causes cells of the mammary glands to produce milk in femles and controls LH and FSH levels and the menstrual cycle, within men it effects testosterone production and sperm production

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84
Q

Prolactinoma

A

causes pressure on the nasal hemiretinas in the chiasm and can lead to tunnel vision

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85
Q

Males and prolactinoma

A

males are more likely to end up with tunnel vision due to them not being able to see the effects of an increase of prolactin and therefore the prolactinoma goes unnoticed

86
Q

Women and prolactinoma

A

they are more likely to notice the prolactinoma at an early stage due to being able to see signs such as irregularities of the menstrual cycle

87
Q

Cranial nerves

A

either sensory, motor, or mixed, all cranial motor neurons have nuclei at some point in the central nervous system, the numbering is dependent on the position anterior to posterior on the ventral surface of the brain

88
Q

Cranial nerve I

A

Olfactory, sensory only, axons travel through holes in the cribbiform plate of the ethmoid (this is the olfactory nerve), carries input from receptors in the olfactory neuroepithelia

89
Q

Cranial nerve II

A

Optic, carries input from receptors in the eye, sensory only

90
Q

Cranial nerve III

A

Oculomotor, controls movements of the eye via skeletal or smooth muscles, found in the mid brain, motor only

91
Q

Cranial nerve IV

A

Trochlear, controls movements of the eye via skeletal or smooth muscle, motor only

92
Q

Cranial nerve V

A

Trigeminal, controls muscles of the jaw and indicates tooth pain, mixed

93
Q

Cranial nerve VI

A

Abducens, ontrols movements of the eye via skeletal or smooth muscle, found in the pons, motor only

94
Q

Cranial nerve VII

A

Facial, contracts muscles of the face, involved in taste, mixed

95
Q

Bell’s palsy

A

droopiness of one side of the face due to inactivity of cranial nerve VII

96
Q

Cranial nerve VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear, sends information from the inner ear regarding auditory, balance, and acceleration, sensory only

97
Q

Cranial nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal, involved in taste, controls muscles of the throat and larynx, mixed

98
Q

Cranial nerve X

A

Vagus, goes everywhere within the throax/abdomen, mixed

99
Q

Cranial nerve XI

A

Spinal acessory, neck muscles, sensory only

100
Q

Cranial nerve XII

A

Hypoglossal, moves the tongue, sensory only

101
Q

Cortex and sense

A

there’re areas of the cortex which are specialized for each sense

102
Q

Semicircular canals

A

sit in the three major planes of the inner ear, filled with endolymph fluid, important for dynamic equilibrium (acceleration)

103
Q

Ampulla

A

found at the base of each semicircular canal, inside are hair cells that sit on and within a layer of supporting cells, the hair cells have projections called sterocillia which sits in the cupula and the cupula will attach to the ampulla wall

104
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A

acceleration detected by the inner ear

105
Q

Endolymph fluid

A

moves opposite to the body but in the same direction within both ears, will put pressure against the cupula such that the sterocilla will move to open/close channels

106
Q

Sterocillia

A

has tip links with potassium channels on it, when they are open they will depolarize the cell and release a neurotransmitter when the potassium channels are closed the cell is hyperpolarized

107
Q

Hair cell activity

A

is never off but the intensity and frequency of the signaling changes based on the stimulus

108
Q

Vestibularocular reflex

A

motion sickness/dizziness accompanied by nausea

109
Q

Smooth muscles of the eye

A

lateral rectus and medial rectus, rectus refers to the fiber direction, when the medial muscles contract the eye moves inward, the lateral muscles contract the eye moves outwards, the lateral rectus is controlled by cranial nerve four and medial rectus is controlled by cranial nerve three which receives synapses from cranial nerve VI

110
Q

Vestibular nerve

A

from the sensory neurons, will make their way to the medulla oblongata found in the brain stem

111
Q

Vestibular nucleus

A

controls the reflex, part of the medulla which will cause us to throw up, they send axons to the abducens nucleus on the contralateral side

112
Q

Over activity of the hair cells

A

if there’s constant acceleration then the endolymph will constantly move the hair cells, the over activity of the hair cells can effect how the eyes see particular movement such that they cannot compensate properly and therefore you experience the visual field spinning

113
Q

Alcohol

A

makes the endolymph less viscous such that it moves all around the place

114
Q

Static equilibrium

A

how the body determines orientation of itself in space; specifically the head, use the saccule and utricle

115
Q

Saccule and Utricle

A

there’re supporting cells which hold sterocillia which sit in a gelatinous layer called an otolith, there’re also little precipitated calcium salt rocks known as otoccnia

116
Q

Otolith

A

when the head moves gravity will pull the otolith and move the tip links to open/ close channels

117
Q

Earwax

A

cerumen, made from cerumonous glands

118
Q

Cochlea

A

comes from a greek term meaning snail, cylinder that is rolled upon itself a few times, three chambers, filled with a fluid called perilymph

119
Q

Ear parts

A

external ear, middle ear, inner ear made of two sets: semicircular canals and the saccule, uticle

120
Q

Pinna

A

also known as the auricle are the ear parts on the outside of the head that will funnel soundwaves through the external auditory canal that will pass through the temporal bone in a temporal lining of the meatus

121
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

also known as the ear drum, is highly vascularized

122
Q

Otitis media

A

middle ear infection, when you swallow and it hurts teh ear its due to inflammation and infection traveling through the pharnx to the middle ear

123
Q

Three parts of the pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

124
Q

Nasopharynx

A

behind the nasal cavity, connected to the middle ear via the auditory tube (also known as the eustacian tube or pharyngotympanic tube),

125
Q

What happens when sound waves enter the ear

A

they come in through the external auditory canal, makes the tympanic membrane vibrate and due to the vibration it will lead to the components of the middle ear to vibrate

126
Q

Tympanic membrane and pressure

A

in order for the tympanic membrane to vibrate the air pressure on both sides have to be equal, the tympanic membrane will bulge depending on which side the pressure is the greatest

127
Q

Ossicles

A

three tiny bones within the ear connected to the tympanic membrane, referred to as the malleus, incus, and the stapes (hammer, anvil, and stirrup), when the tympanic membrane vibrates the stapes acts like a piston that pushes into the membrane of the cochlea called the oval window

128
Q

Oval window

A

when it moves it causes the perilymph to move and cause the scala vestibuli duct then around the helicotrema and then through the scala tympani eventually pushing against the round window

129
Q

Basilar membrane

A

separates the choclear duct from the scala tympani and then will vibrate a t afrequency and amplitude to activate eh hair cells

130
Q

Organ of corti

A

layer of hair cells and membranes within the basilar membrane

131
Q

Frequency hair cells location

A

high frequency located near the round window and those that respond to lowest frequencies are found in helicotrema, low frequency hair cells can be found near the helicotrema

132
Q

Why an ossicle system

A

it’s inefficient to move soundwaves from an air medium to a liquid medium therefore the ossicles amplify the sound waves from a gas medium such that the liquid medium within the cochlea will be able to transduce them

133
Q

Skeletal muscle cells

A

connected to the bone and involved in voluntary movement, long and cylindrical, made of contractile elements, can be up to 20cm in length and 10-100, multinucleate, could have 50 nuclei, nuclei are found in the periphery, striated, arranged in parallel rows, amitotic

134
Q

Contractile elements

A

smaller cylinders which are specialized organelles that make up the skeletal muscle cells

135
Q

Strength and skeletal muscles

A

an individual muscle could be made of multiple cells the stronger you are the larger the diameter of the cell

136
Q

Cardiac muscle cells

A

straited, either binucleate or uninucleate

137
Q

Intercalated disc

A

cardiac muscle cells that branch with junctions between each muscle cell

138
Q

Smooth muscle

A

spindle shaped, arranged in sheets, uninucleate, involuntary

139
Q

Where is smooth muscle found

A

hair follicles of the skin, eye, lining of tracts

140
Q

Fasicles

A

muscle fibers that are bundled together also known as a muscle cell

141
Q

Myofiber

A

specialized organelle in straited muscle consisting of alternating bands of light and dark

142
Q

Sarcolemma

A

skeletal muscle cell membrane

143
Q

T tubules

A

transverse tubules, at each z line the sarcolemma will fold inward, a downward projection of the sarcolemma to inside the muscle cell, wraps around individual myofibruals, increases surface area for more receptors for acetylcholine

144
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

the ER of muscle cells, but dissimilar to the ER the structure is that of pouches and sacs

145
Q

Lateral sacs

A

expansions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

146
Q

T tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

they are connected to each other such that if there’s a change in the membrane potential of the sarcolemma it will spread along the entire length of the muscle cell as well as through the muscle cell

147
Q

Sarcomere

A

function and structural unit of muscle contraction bordered by a Z line/disc on each side, made of a collection of proteins

148
Q

Actin and myosin

A

primary proteins of a sarcomere, their relationship gives the muscle the striated look

149
Q

Actin

A

thin filament, globular protein, polymerizes with other actin, has binding sites for myosin cross bridges

150
Q

Tropomyosin

A

weaves around actin covering the binding sites when the muscle is relaxed

151
Q

Troponin

A

holds tropomyosin over the binding sites of actin, has three binding sites: one for tropomyosin, another for actin, and another for calcium

152
Q

Myosin

A

thick filament, has two polypeptide heavy chains and four light chains,

153
Q

Light chains

A

have globular heads containing cross bridges which have binding sites for actin and ATP, when the cross bridges on the globular head hydrolyze ATP it will provide energy for force generation

154
Q

ATP with muscle contractions

A

causes cross bridges to move by hydrolyzing, needed in relaxation of muscles as it binds to cross bridges to cause it to let go, moves calcium against its gradient with calcium ATPase

155
Q

Distrophin

A

anchors myofibrils to the outside membrane giving muscle cell strucutre

156
Q

Muscular dystrophy

A

X linked recessive disorder where there’s a mutation to distrophin such thatt the myofibrils are no longer anchored ot the outside membrane and the muscle starts to lyse

157
Q

Bands of the sarcomere

A

I band, A band, H zone, and M line, each band varies in how much light can pass through, name refers to german words

158
Q

H zone

A

only myosin, has supporting protein (M line) that goes right down the middle

159
Q

A band

A

actin and myosin overlap, the overlap is the length of myosin

160
Q

I band

A

only actin, bisected by the Z line

161
Q

How many actin surround myosin? and vice vers?

A

there’re 6 thick filaments that surround a thin filament and three thin filaments to surround a thick filament

162
Q

What has to occur for muscle contraction

A

calcium levels within the muscle cell has to go up, calcium is in higher concentration in the extracellular space, calcium can also be found within the sarcoplamsic reticulum and mitochondria

163
Q

How did people before the 1950 believe how muscles contratcted

A

calcium binds to myosin and changes its shape so that it gets shorter, they knew of cross bridges on myosin, thought all cross bridges were connected to actin all the time and that when calcium shortened the myosin and pulled actin towards the H zone forcing all zones to shrink

164
Q

Sliding filament history

A

founded by Huxley who published a paper in Nature around the 1950s, used an electron microscope and a ruler

165
Q

Sliding filament experiment

A

sarcomeres were imaged in the relaxed state and then in a contracted state and measure the components of the sarcomere

166
Q

Sliding filament experiment results

A

Z lines would get closer to each other, I band and H zone are reduced in size while A band remains the same size

167
Q

Sliding filament conclusion

A

in contracted and relaxed muscle myosin remained the same length therefore myosin stays the same shape and actin slides over myosin pulling actin towards the middle

168
Q

Cross bridge cycling

A

myosin will hold onto actin and pull it towards the H zone but there’s no recoil of the actin due to cycling, cross bridges at various points will pull and then one cross bridge will let go while the adjacent cross bridges stays holding on, this cycling will continue as long as calcium is around

169
Q

Cross bridge cycling frequency

A

is dependent on the strength of the muscles contract, the higher the strength of contraction the larger amount of cycling and then sustaining, does not change the amplitude of an action potential but rather the frequency of the action potential

170
Q

Acetyl choline

A

necessary skeletal neurotransmitter, released by a motor neuron

171
Q

Motor unit

A

motor neuron and all the muscle cells that it makes it contact with

172
Q

Ratio of motor neuron to muscle cells and ratio of muscle cell to motor neuron

A

one motor neuron can innervate with thousands of muscle cells but one skeletal muscle can innervate with one motor neuron

173
Q

Fine movement vs gross movement

A

the smaller the ratio of motor neuron to muscle cells leads to fine motor movement while larger ratios of motor neurons to muscle cells will lead to gross movements

174
Q

DHP receptor

A

dihydropuridine receptor

175
Q

Sarin nerve gas

A

inhibits acetyl choline esterase so that acetyl choline will stay in the clef and the skeletal muscle cell will continue to produce an action potential allowing for increased calcium concentrations within the cell and continual cross bridge cycling and muscle contraction

176
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

where motor neuron and skeletal muscle cell interact, the axon terminal has a large surface area and claw like extensions

177
Q

Motor end plate

A

portion of the skeletal muscle cell that receives information from the motor neuron

178
Q

Schwann cell

A

glial cells which surrounds the axon terminal to insulate the axon terminal and the end plate from the extracellular fluid

179
Q

Resting potential and threshold potential of skeletal muscle cell

A

-90 mv resting and -75 threshold potential

180
Q

End plate potential

A

generated by a motor endplate, is a graded potential similar to EPSP, due to ligand gated ion channels (acetylcholine receptors), only produces an depolarization due to sodium channel linked to acetylcholine receptors, depolarization will occur in the middle of the skeletal muscle cell where the end of the motor neuron is and then the action potential will move in both directions of the muscle cell

181
Q

Why won’t the depolarization of a muscle cell go back to where it started

A

due to the voltage gated calcium channels being closed and needing to be inactivated before opening again

182
Q

Latent period in skeletal muscle contractions

A

10 ms

183
Q

Resting state of skeletal muscle equation

A

A+M+ADP*Pi; myosin is not bound to actin but cross bridge is energized due to ATP being hydrolized

184
Q

Calcium levels increase within the cytosol of a skeletal muscle equation

A

AMADP*Pi; everything is bound together and calcium will bind to troponin so that the binding sites are exposed on actin allowing for cross bridges to bind

185
Q

Movement of the cross bridge in skeletal muscle equation

A

A*M; ADP and Pi are lost allowing cross bridge to move it towards the H zone

186
Q

Rigor mortis

A

myosin cross bridge remains bound to actin and the muscles are kept in tension for about a day until there’s decomposition of the proteins, ATP generation will stop due to loss of blood circulation but the fluid and electrolites floating around will cause changes to membrane potential

187
Q

ATP binds to Myosin skeletal muscle equation

A

A+M+ATP; ATP is not hydrolized therefore cross bridge is not energized and will detach from actin

188
Q

Creatine phosphate

A

in the first few seconds of intense muscle contraction muscles will use ATP for around 30 seconds

189
Q

Creatine kinase

A

takes a phosphate to createine phosphate and add it to ADP to create ATP

190
Q

Source of energy

A

after about 25 minutes carbohydrates from the blood or glycogen stop being used as the primary energy source, then fatty acids will be used, this time will shift depending on how many carbohydrates you intake

191
Q

Beta oxidation

A

fatty acids converted into acetyl choline and enter the critic acid cycle

192
Q

Glycogen in a muscle

A

will last around 15-20 minutes

193
Q

How early should a person eat a lot of carbs before intense and prolonged exercise

A

48hrs to increase glycogen capacity within teh skeletal muscle

194
Q

Muscular dystrophy

A

creatine kinase levels are high in the plasma which is an indicator of the muscle integrity

195
Q

GFR

A

gulmeral filtration rate is an indicator of kidney function, there’s an inverse relationship between creatinine in tne plasma and GFR

196
Q

Creatinine

A

waste product of creatine phosphate after acted on by creatine kinase

197
Q

Isomeric exercise

A

muscles remain the same length, if you’re asked to do isomeric exercise multiple times with a rest period you wont be able to hold it for as long after each successive trial

198
Q

ATP in fatigued muscles

A

are at the nearly the same levels as ATP within a rested muscle

199
Q

Conduction failure

A

if a muscle is constantly contracting it’s always producing an action potential and the levels of potassium outsid ethe cell will be high leading to the cell not being able to repolarize properly, leading to voltage gated calcium channels being harder to open and therefore difficult to produce an action potential

200
Q

Lactic acid buildup

A

oxidative phosphorylation can occur even if oxygen levels are low but the amount of ATP will be lower, if pyruvate is unable to cross into the mitochondria due to the lack of oxygen the cell will undergo lactic acid fermentation which will regenerate NMDA! such that ATP can be generation but not a lot

201
Q

Lactic acid buildup and proteins

A

the build up of acid doesn’t induce enough of a change of pH to change the conformation of muscle cells

202
Q

Soreness after exercise

A

is felt due to inflammation, change in pH, and microscopic tears of the muscle

203
Q

Inhibition of cross bridge cycling

A

the cross bridge is moving due to ADP and an inorganic phosphate molecules leaving and as these molecules build up they get in the way of the cross bridges

204
Q

Central command fatigue

A

probably what mainly causes muscle fatigue, if you don’t feel like moving the muscle won’t move

205
Q

Precentral gyrus

A

area in the frontal cortex which contains the primary motor cortex this is where voluntary muscle movements start

206
Q

Cortical areas areas

A

feed the primary motor cortex and tell the muscles when to function

207
Q

Cingulate gyrus

A

above the corpus collosum as a bump of tissue, the gyrus is involved in motivation to do anything

208
Q

Muscle cramping

A

is mainly involved with sodium and water balance, the increase amount of sodium within the fluid leads to more sodium flowing in when channels open the membrane potential is closer to threshold and easier for muscle cells to create an action potential and contract

209
Q

Isotonic fluid depletion

A

equal amount of water and solute loss

210
Q

Hypertonic fluid depletion

A

higher loss of water than solute

Systemic Physiology (5 decks)

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