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Systemic Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Physiology

A

study/logic of nature; study of the function of something

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2
Q

Homeostasis

A

maintenance of a stable internal environment despite the external environment

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3
Q

Physiology

A

homeostasis is maintained

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4
Q

Pathophysiology

A

homeostasis isn’t maintained

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5
Q

Claude Bernard

A

believed that keeping an “internal milieu” of the four “humors” is a prereq for good health

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6
Q

Walter Cannon

A

coined the term homeostasis

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7
Q

Pavlov question

A

why the contents of stomach are acidic and when they reach the duodenum it becomes alkyl

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8
Q

Cranial nerve X

A

vagus nerve; communicates and recieves info from many areas of thoracic and abdominal cavities

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9
Q

Afferent

A

towards the brain

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10
Q

Efferent

A

away from the brain

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11
Q

Pavlov hypothesis

A

the vagus nerve controlled the liver and pancreas ducts working together

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12
Q

Be able to draw and label the ducts and important parts of the liver and pancreas as well as what is found moving through the ducts

A

:)

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13
Q

Bayliss and Starling hypothesis

A

believed the nervous system didn’t affect the change of pH. thought there were cells in the small intestine producing a hormone

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14
Q

Bayliss and Starling Experiment 1 description

A

tedious dissections of dogs to remove branches of the vagus nerve in the liver, pancreas, small intestine while keeping the vasculature intact. an acidic solution was dripped into the duodenum

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15
Q

Bayliss and Starling Experiment 1 results

A

when the acidic solution was added the pancreatic duct started to contract and bicarbonate solution moved into the duodenum

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16
Q

Bayliss and Starling Experiment 1 faults

A

they didn’t think they got all of the afferent and efferent vagus nerve

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17
Q

Bayliss and Starling Experiment 2 description

A

scraped parts of the duodenal mucosa, added some acid, filtered, and injected the solution into the veins of a dog

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18
Q

Bayliss and Starling Experiment 2 results

A

the pancreatic duct constricted and the bicarbonate solution was released

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19
Q

Secretin

A

discovered by Bayliss and Starling; made by cells lining the duodenum when the concentration of hydrogen ions increase; secreted into the blood to result in the pancreatic duct contracting and releasing bicarbonate solution

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20
Q

Parts of a homeostatic mechanism

A

receptor, control center, effectors

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21
Q

Cholecystokinin

A

made by cells of the duodenum to cause the cholecyst to contract and release bile which relaxes the sphincter of oddi and cause enzyme rich solution to be released from the pancreas

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22
Q

Merocrine

A

secrete product through exocytosis of secretory vacuoles; no part of the cell is lost in the process

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23
Q

Merocrine example

A

sweat gland

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24
Q

Apocrine

A

there are apical regions which are pinched off during secretion leading to cells partially losing cytoplasm during secretion

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25
Q

Apocrine example

A

sweat glands found in axillary and inguinal regions

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26
Q

Holocrine

A

dislodged cells from the basement membrane is secreted leading to the entire cell being lost

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27
Q

Holocrine example

A

sebaceous glands of the skin

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28
Q

Endocrine

A

ductless

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29
Q

Endocrine example

A

secretin

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30
Q

Exocrine

A

have ducts

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31
Q

Cytogenous

A

release of entire viable cells

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32
Q

Cytogenous example

A

seminiferous tubules releasing sperm cells

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33
Q

Autocrine

A

cell releases signal which works on those surrounding it as well as itself

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34
Q

Paracrine

A

cell releases signal which only works on neighboring cells

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35
Q

Neurocrine

A

neuron releases neurotransmitter to one target cell

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36
Q

Jusxtaposed cells

A

what happens to one cell will happen to the cell that is juxtacrine to the other

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37
Q

Growth factors will be converted to

A

arachidonic acid

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38
Q

Arachidonic acid final product

A

will be converted into something else which when added with cyclooxygenase will yield prostaglandin, thromboxane, and leukotrisne

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39
Q

Prostaglandin

A

primary pain signal that the body produces; found in most all cells

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40
Q

How to create pain medication

A

could inhibit cyclooxygenase through a NSAIDs way or using cortisol to block the creating of arachidonic

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41
Q

NSAIDs

A

nonsteroidal anti-infammatory drug

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42
Q

Asprin and Thromboxane

A

thromboxane is created by platelets; aspirin inhibits its creation which also decreases the chance of blood clots

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43
Q

Nitric Oxide

A

most important to cardiovascular physicology; will is a vasodilator

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44
Q

Norepinephrine

A

made by the brain and adrenal glands; released in response to stress. Will cause BP to increase by contracting vascular smooth muscle causing cardio output to increase. Will cause Bronchial smooth muscles to relax. this happens due to different transduction pathways between vascular smooth muscle and bronchial smooth muscles

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45
Q

Sodium

A

primary cation within body fluid

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46
Q

Average person’s division of body fluid

A

42L is divided about 2/3 is found intracellular, about 1/4 is found interstitial, the rest is found intravascular

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47
Q

Interstitial

A

space between cells

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48
Q

Concentration of substances within the body fluid between the different spaces

A

is similar

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49
Q

Viscosity and plasma

A

plasma is more viscous than the fluid found in the interstitial space

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50
Q

Dynamic constancy and set point

A

homeostasis will keep the body’s physiological systems within a set range of numbers which will have constant fluctuation throughout the day

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51
Q

Arterial oxygen and calcium levels set point

A

has a tighter range of numbers than any other set points

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52
Q

Ghrelin set point

A

300-700pg/ml; primary orexigenic signal

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53
Q

Set point for fasting glucose level

A

90mg/dL

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54
Q

Pituitary gland

A

controls almost all aspects of physiological processing; master gland of the endocrine system; located within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone of the skull

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55
Q

ACTH

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone; will act on the adrenal glands to cause them to release cortisol

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56
Q

HPA axis: ACTH

A

the pituitary gland will release CRH which will release corticotropin which will release ACTH who will act on the adrenal glands to cause them to release cortisol

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57
Q

CRH

A

cortiocotropin releasing hormone

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58
Q

Cortisol

A

glucocorticoid; released under conditions of stress; will increase levels of blood glucose which will increase the amount of energy available for the muscles and nerve cells

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59
Q

Cortisol set point and ACTH

A

will fluctuate throughout the day; a few hours before you awake ACTH will slowing rise increasing cortisol levels so that when you are awake there is energy available; other than that the levels of cortisol and ACTH are within normal rage

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60
Q

Be able to draw the graphs of glucose, ghrelin, ACTH/cortisol

A
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61
Q

Negative feedback

A

opposite response to some initial stimulus

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62
Q

Hypothermia negative feedback

A

first the body will try to conserve heath through: to constrict the skin blood vessels to draw blood away from the surface of the skin and not activate the sweat glands and curling the body up. if the first steps don’t work the body will try to produce heat through shivering which when the skeletal muscles contract they need ATP to do so. (1 glucose molecule is converted to 34% ATP and the rest heat)

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63
Q

Metabolic and molecular pathways negative feedback

A

the product of a pathway will bind to a rate limiting enzyme through competitive/noncompetitive/allosteric inhibition which will change the binding site. ex/ phosphofrutokinase

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64
Q

Blood glucose negative feedback

A

when it increases beta cells will increase insulin. when it decreases alpha cells will increase glucagon

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65
Q

HPT and T4 negative feedback

A

hypothalamus releases TRH which will effect the pituitary gland to release TSH which will tell the thyroid to increase the production of T4 and T3 but especially T4. The failure of having iodine will lead to T3 and T4 to being contstructed incorrectly and therefore the negative feedback loop will not complete causing the pituitary gland to continue producing TSH. As T3 and T4 concentration increases the thyroid follicles will increase in order to hold all of it leading to goiters

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66
Q

Thyroid follicles

A

will surround the colloid and store thyroid hormones

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67
Q

Thyroid hormones

A

make it easy and efficient for cells to generate ATP

68
Q

TRH

A

thyrotropin releasing hormone

69
Q

TSH

A

thyroid stimulating hormone

70
Q

Positive feedback

A

initial stimulus is reinforced; rare due to leading to not maintaining variables within a set range

71
Q

Hemostasis and positive feedback

A

after being cut the body will start the blood clotting cascase. thrombin will be ultimately be produced to create a blood clot which in turn increases the molecules used to create thrombin

72
Q

Hemostasis and negative feedback

A

the production of thrombin will lead to ceasing of blood loss

73
Q

Parturition and positive feedback

A

Contractions of the myometrium will cause the relase of oxytocin (a posterior pituitary hormone) which will cause more uterine contractions

74
Q

Parturition and negative feedback

A

child birth signifies the end of gestation

75
Q

Resetting set points - fever

A

hypothalamus will increase body temperature and mechanisms are enacted to keep it at a higher level in order to make the body inhospitable for illness

76
Q

Resetting set points - body temp

A

due to lower amount of movement at night body temperature is set to a lower set point

77
Q

Resetting set points - iron levels

A

during infection iron levels will decrease in order to withold the iron from bacteria who can use it to produce energy

78
Q

Endogenous

A

comes from within

79
Q

Entrainable

A

can be reset but the body will be given reminders

80
Q

Zeitgeber

A

natural time giver, the sun

81
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

based off of the sun, the pineal gland will secrete melatonin, levels are highter around the time you go to sleep and decrease a few hours before you wake up; about 24 hour length cycle

82
Q

Phase shifting

A

circadian rhythm shifting as age increses

83
Q

Hamsters and circadian rhythm experiment

A

with constant dim light there’s no zeitgeber and therefore activity isn’t confined to when the light is on; the activity shifts each day due to the circadian rhythms not being exactly 24 hours long

84
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

within the hypothalamus

85
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and circadian rhythm

A

the belief was that the SCN wasn’t connected to other parts of the brain like other regions are and therefore it was releasing some type of endocrine signal which directs other parts of the brain

86
Q

SCN experiment 1 description

A

A Halasz knife was used to cut around the SCN of rodents leaving their cells intact while stopping any neuralogical signals from coming in or leaving

87
Q

SCN experiment 1 results

A

the rodent’s circadian rhythm wasn’t changed at a ll

88
Q

SCN experiment 2 descritpion

A

the SCN of rodents were lesioned and fetal SCN cells were encapsulated with a nuclear membrane which only allowed molecules to move through diffusion across it

89
Q

SCN experiment 2 results

A

the circadian rhythms were able to return to normal after the SN was lesioned and prior to the fetal SCN cells were put in place; this implies that thte cells of SCN were creating a diffisuable signal which controlled the circadian rhythm

90
Q

SCN firing rates

A

cells of the SCN were put in culture and the firing rates were recorded; they followed an about 24 hour rhythm and peaked at different times due to the vast amount of other physiological processes that are regulated by the circadian rhythm

91
Q

action potential

A

cells changing the charge of their insides with respect to the houtside

92
Q

retinohypothalamic pathway

A

pathway within the eyes that respond to light

93
Q

Visually impaired and circadian rhythm

A

most visually impaired peolpe can keep circadian rhytjms while other cases leads to unmaintainable circadian rhythm

94
Q

Ganglion cells

A

the primary job of sending information about light to the SCN

95
Q

Clock genes

A

discovered first in fruit flies, the protein that’s trasnscribed will enter the nucleus and supress the gene. as the levels decrease and the inhibitor will be removed to allow the gene to express itself

96
Q

SCN and clock genes

A

within the SCN there’re clock genes which will signal the pienal gland, when you’re awake the SCN clock genes will inhibt which doesn’t allow for signals to pass to the pineal gland and no melatonin is produce

97
Q

Jet lag

A

takes about 4-5 days for the zeitgerber to remind the SCN and reset the circadian rhythm

98
Q

Ultradian

A

rhythms less than a day

99
Q

Infradian

A

rhythms longer than a day

100
Q

Circlunal

A

rhythms about the length of the cycle of the moon

101
Q

Anticipatory homeostasis

A

the body anticipates the need for change in order to keep homeostatic conditions before the environmental change occurs

102
Q

Drug withdrawl

A

symptoms are opposite of how the drug effects the body due to the body trying to keep homeostasis

103
Q

Drug overdose and anticipatory homeostasis

A

taking a drug at the same place, at the same time, with the same people leads to the body to physchologically learn and in turn anticipatory homeostasis will occur; by changing the environment the body isn’t cued in on what’s happening and anticipatory homeostaisis will not occur and the body will be susceptible to overdosing

104
Q

gernalizations of homeostatic control systems

A

balancing inputs and outputs, negative feedback is a hallmark of normal physiology, there’s a range of normal values, set points can be reset, there’s a heirarchy of control systems so if the body needs to keep homeostasis by shutting down body systems it will (ex/ heat stroke)

105
Q

Baroreceptro reflex

A

carotid sinuses within the aortic arch will snese the presser and stretching/distension of the vessels

106
Q

Baroreceptor reflex - afferant pathways

A

vagus nerve and glossopharingeal

107
Q

Baroreceptor reflex - integrating center

A

nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) within the medulla oblongata found within the brain stem

108
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

in charge of most reflexes

109
Q

Influencers of blood pressure

A

cardiac output and peripheral resistance

110
Q

Cardiac output

A

heart rate multiplied by stroke volume

111
Q

Average cardiac output

A

average resting heart rate is 70; average stroke volume is 0.07L leading to an average cardiac output of 5L/min

112
Q

Peripheral resistance

A

how dilated vessels are

113
Q

To lower BP how to change cardiac output

A

change cardiac output by lowering heart rate or lowering stroke volume through lowering the amount of water within the blood

114
Q

Baroreceptor reflex pathway

A

the carotid sinuses will send signals down the X and IX nerves towards the NTS. Once recieved the NTS will signal to the CVLM, SON, and NA. CVLM will signal to the RVLM which will lead multistep sympathetic nervous system response. SON will send a signal to the posterior pituitary gland to either inhibit or make ADH. NA will cause a parasymphetic nervous system response.

115
Q

Carotid sinuses

A

baroreceptors found within the internal carotids; has a baseline of activity but when BP changes the activity of the receptors will fluctuate based on the change

116
Q

CVLM

A

caudal ventrolateral medulla

117
Q

RVLM

A

rostral ventrolateral medulla

118
Q

NA

A

nucleus ambiguus; found within the medulla

119
Q

SON

A

supraoptic nucleus within the hypothalamus

120
Q

ADH

A

antidiuretic hormone; aka vasopressin

121
Q

Parasympathetic pathway and X

A

there are connections of the vagus nerve within the parasympathetic pathway; through mechanical stimulation of the vagus nerve it can mimic the effector signals of the barorecepter reflex and lower BP

122
Q

Baroreceptor reflex - when BP is high

A

there’s a lot of distension within the vessels and the carotid sinus receptors will increase in activity and send signals from the X and IX nerve to the NTS. The NTS will send signals to the CVLM to inhibit RVLM and therefore inhibiting the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. NTS will then activate NA which will activate the main parasympatheitc nervous system towards the heart lowering the heart rate. NTS will inhibit SON to not release vasopressin

123
Q

SON and ADH

A

SON will send a signal to the posterior pituitary gland to cause the gland to create ADH

124
Q

Baroreceptor reflex - when BP is low

A

disinhbition will occur as there’re no inhibitors and activation of the effectors SON and CVLM will occur

125
Q

Homeostasis of chemical substances

A

loss of substances has to equal the gain of substances

126
Q

Pool

A

can either store net gain substances or could be incorporated into other molecules

127
Q

Net loss of chemical substances

A

can happen through metabolism and other excretions

128
Q

Reccommended daily intake of sodium

A

2300mg

129
Q

If sodium levels increase

A

the body needs 3 days to return to homeostasis in the mean time the osmolarity of the blood is increased leading to high stroke volume

130
Q

Questions to ask about any homeostatic response

A

what is the variable being measured, what are the receptors and where are they, what’s the integrating center and where, what’re the effectors and how do they work

131
Q

Membrane potential

A

potential difference in distribution of charges in membrane due to the unequal distribution of charges outside vs inside the cell

132
Q

Membrane potential of every cell

A

is negative, fewer positive charges on the inside the cell membrane relative to the outside

133
Q

Excitable cells

A

cells that can flip the charge from outside to the inside, neurons and muscle cells

134
Q

Variables of excitable cells

A

dependent on permeability of the cell membrane, cells with more abundance of voltage gated ion channels have larger permeabilities

135
Q

Current

A

movement of ions through an ion channel

136
Q

Sodium extracellular concentration

A

145 mmol/L

137
Q

Sodium intracellular concentration

A

15 mmol/L

138
Q

Chloride extracellular concentration

A

100 mmol/L

139
Q

Chloride intracellular concentration

A

7 mmol/L (dependent on the type of cell)

140
Q

Potassium extracellular concentration

A

5 mmol/L

141
Q

Potassium intracellular concentration

A

150 mmol/L

142
Q

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation

A

calculates resting membrane potential, equals -70 millivolts

143
Q

Pk

A

1

144
Q

PNa

A

0.04

145
Q

PCl

A

0.45

146
Q

Membrane permeabilities for potassium vs sodium

A

for potassium it is 25% more permeable than for sodium due to potassium channels being more leaky

147
Q

Two compartments: Compartment A with 0.15M of NaCl and Compartment B with 0.15M KCl, there’s a membrane between the compartments and two potassium ion channels

A

when the channels open there’s a flux due to concentration gradiant of potassium leading to compartment A gaining positive charge and compartment B losing positive charge creating a potential difference. Then a flux due to electrostratic gradient will occur and potassium will start to move back to compartment B as it’s attracted to the negative charge. Equilibrium potential of potassium is reached when the flux forces become equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. There’s not an equal amount of potassium between each comparment nor equal in charge but the fluxes will be equal

148
Q

Nernst equation

A

Eion=(61/Z)log(C0/C1) Z=valance charge of ion C0=concentration on the outside C1= concentration on the inside

Calculates the voltage at which there would be no movement of ions given the membrane was permeable for only that ion and equilibrium potential was reached

149
Q

61/Z from Nernst equation comes from

A

RT/ZF R=gas constant, T=temp constant, F= Fereday’s constant

150
Q

ENa

A

60 millivolts

151
Q

EK

A

-90 millivolts

152
Q

ECl

A

-70 millivolts

153
Q

Resting membrane potential and equilibrium potential of potassium

A

isn’t surprisingly close to eachother because when the cell is at rest the ion channel for potassium is leaky

154
Q

Sodium Potassium pumps

A

3 sodium move out for every 2

155
Q

Depolarizing

A

loss of negative potential charge, charges moves towards zero, membrane potential doens’t become positive

156
Q

Overshoot

A

reversing the polarity of membrane potential, only excitable cells can do this, in order for this to happen a lot of sodium has to mvoe in and a lot of potassium has to move out which is an energetically expensive action, almost as cells do this they will repolarize

157
Q

Repolarizing

A

cells getting back to resting potential

158
Q

Hyperpolarizing

A

more negative than resting potential

159
Q

Action potential

A

uses voltage gated ion channels, happens in only exictable cells, only depolarizes, will have the same amplitude magnitude and duration throughout the membrane

160
Q

Sodium channel

A

has amnio acid residue aka inactivation gate that will swing into the channel after it opens, the channel will go from closed to open to inactivated state which will then go back to a closed state, it cannot be opened if in an inactivated state

161
Q

Potassium channel

A

will go from closed to open and open to closed

162
Q

Sodium and potassium channels

A

have the same stimulus to open the channels which doesn’t make sense because it wouldn’t chagne the charge of membranes when used for action potential but it’s alright because potassium is slower to respond than sodium

163
Q

Graded potential

A

change in variable amplitude and duration which is conducted decrementally, occurs in all cells, depends on ligand gated channels or mechanically gated channels

164
Q

Ligand gated sodium channel - graded potential

A

when the chemical stimulus binds the channel opens up and sodium will move inside the cell (concentration gradient). Sodium will then also start to move out with the help of a potassium pump scattered nearby the channel opening. As the amount of sodium entering increases the duration it takes to move it back out will increase which leads to the decrement of the cell membrane. As sodium is being pumped out the positive charge will be spread around the channel where sodium is entering which leds to an increasingly negative membrane potential as you move away from the channel.

165
Q

Amplitude of graded potential

A

dependent on the intensity of the stimulus, a high intentsity stimulus means there’s a lot of the ligant present which also leads to a longer duration for the membrane needs to pump the sodium back out

166
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

potential becomes more negative than the resting level

Systemic Physiology (5 decks)

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