Exam 3 Flashcards
What is an animal?
- Multicellular
- Heterotrophic
- No Cell Walls
- Eukaryotic
- Tissues Developed From Embryonic Layers
What animals exhibit radial symmetry?
Cnidaria and many Ctenophora
Diploblastic
Having only 2 germ layers
Example of a diploblastic animal?
Cnidaria
Triploblastic
Having 3 germ layers
What is a protostome?
Mouth forms first
What is a deuterostome?
Anus forms first, mouth forms second
Developmental Stages:
Zygote, Blastula, Gastrula
Covers the surface and becomes the outer covering and in some phyla the central nervous system
Ectoderm
Is the innermost germ layer that lines the digestive tract and organs such as the lungs and liver in vertebrates
Endoderm
Is the 3rd layers (forms between the other 2 layers) forms muscles and most other organs. Not all animals have this.
Mesoderm
What Era?
242-251 MYA
Cambrian explosion
First fossils of arthropods, chordates, and echinoderms
Burgess Shale
Paleozoic Era
What Era?
Dinosaurs and other mammals
Coral Reefs Formed
Small Mammals
Mesozoic Era
What Era?
Diversity of mammals
Cenozoic Era
Filer Feeders
Basal Animals
Choanocyte
Spongocoel
Hermaphroditic
Sponges
Protostome
Triploblastic layer of tiny muscles around the ring of the bell
Small Nervous System
Poisonous
Cnidarians
Classes of Cnidaria
Hydrozoans, Scyphozoans, Cubozoans, Anthozoans
Phylum’s in Clade Lophotrochozoa
Platyhelminthes, Rotifera, Mollusca, Annelida
What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Marine, Freshwater, and Terrestrial
Triploblastic Acoelomates
No Circulatory System
Hermaphrodites
Turbellarians, Monogeneans, and Trematodes
Key Animal - Flatworm
Platyhelminthes
What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Freshwater, marine, and terrestrial
Alimentary Canal
Many reproduce by parthenogenesis
Includes class Bdelloidea
Rotifera
What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Mostly marine
Secrete a hard shell - internal or external
Coelomates
3 main body parts: muscular foot, mantle, radula
Includes classes gastropoda, bivalvia, cephalopoda
Mollusca
Tongue-like feeding organ
Radula
Fold of tissue over visceral mass
Creates visceral cavity
Secretes the shell
Mantle
Are organs that allow the organism to change colors by distorting the cytoplasmic sacculus, changing the translucency or reflectivity of the cell.
Chromatophores
Are organs that allow bioluminescent light to shine from the organism.
Photophores
What phylum of Lophotrochozoa?
Key animal - earthworm
Coelomates
Marine, Freshwater, and Terrestrial
Includes Classes Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, Hirudinea
Annelida
Are ridge-like structures that are used in locomotion.
Parapodia
Phylums of Ecdysozoa (7)
Nematoda, Arthropoda, Cheliceriformes, Myriapoda, Hexapoda, Crustacea, Echinodermata
Characteristics of Arthropods
Cuticle, Sensory Organs, Open Circulatory System, Gas exchange, Segmented Body, Hard exoskeleton, Jointed Appendages, Cephalothorax
Used for sensing, feeding, or reproducing in arachnids
pedipalps
Millipeds and Centipedes
Myriapoda
Incomplete Metamorphosis
Young resemble the adults
Complete Metamorphosis
Young do not look like adults until maturity
Beetles
Coleoptera - Complete
Flies and Mosquitoes
Diptera - Complete
Ants, Bees, and Wasps
Hymenoptera - Complete
Grasshoppers, Crickets, Katydids
Orthoptera - Incomplete
Woodlice and Roly-poly’s
Isopods
Lobsters, Crabs, and Shrimp
Decapods
Is a hardened cuticle on dorsal cephalothorax
Carapace
Krill and other species
Copepods
What phylum of Ecdysozoa?
Deuterostomes
Bilateral
Sea stars, urchins, sea cucumbers
Water Vascular System
Sexual Reproduction
Echinodermata
Are the bilaterian animals that belong to Deuterostomia
Chordates
2 types of invertebrate deuterostomes
Urochordates, Cephalochordates
Derived Characters of Chordates: (4)
Notochord, Dorsal - hollow nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits, muscular post anal tail
Derived Characters of Craniates:
Neural Crest, heart with at least 2 chambers, kidneys, red blood cells with hemoglobin
A collection of cells near the dorsal margins of the closing neural tube in an embryo
Neural crest
Derived Characters of Vertebrates:
Enclosed spinal cord, elaborate skull, fin rays
Are vertebrates with jaws
Enlarged forebrain associated with enhanced smell and vision
In aquatic - the lateral line system which is sensitive to vibrations
Gnathostomes
Hagfish
Least derived surviving craniate lineage
Have cartilaginous skull and axial rod of cartilage derived from the notochord but lack jaws and vertebrate
Myxini
Eggs hatch outside of mother’s body
Oviparous
The embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk
Ovoviviparous
Embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the mother’s body
Viviparous
Includes sharks, rays, and skates
Skeleton composed primarily of cartilage
Chondrichthyans
Includes bony fish and tetrapod’s
Have a bony skeleton
Breathe by drawing water over gills
Control buoyancy with swim bladder
Osteichthyes
Lobe-fins have muscular pelvic and pectoral fins
3 surviving lineages
Sarcopterygii
Derived Characters of Tetrapods
4 limbs and feet with digits, ears
Salamanders - which have tails
Caudata
Frogs and Toads - which lack tails
Anura
Caecilians - which are legless and resemble worms
Apoda
Are a group of tetrapod’s whose living members are the reptiles
Amniotes
Wings with Keratin feathers
Lack of a urinary bladder
4 chambered heart
Endothermy
Females have 1 ovary
Small gonads
Loss of teeth
Derived Characters of Birds
Derived Characters of Mammals: (4)
Mammary glands, Hair, larger brain, differentiated teeth
Small group of egg-laying mammals consisting of echidnas and platypus
Monotremes
Embryo develops within a placenta in the mother’s uterus
Completes its embryonic development while nursing in a maternal pouch
Includes: opossums, kangaroos, and koalas
Marsupials
What phylum are humans in?
Eutherians
Derived Characters of Hominids:
Upright posture, bipedal, larger brains, language capabilities, symbolic thought, shortened jaw and digestive tract, manufacture and use of tools
Space between cells is filled with what
interstitial fluid
2 main body cavities
dorsal and ventral
2 parts of the thoracic cavity and where are they
Pericardial - heart, pleural - lungs
Abdominopelvic cavity and where is it located
Peritoneal cavity - coelomic space
4 main categories of tissue
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
3 shapes of epithelial tissue
cuboidal, columnar, squamous
3 arrangement types of epithelial tissue
simple, stratified, or pseudostratified
2 major types of connective tissue
loose and dense
What produces and secretes extracellular matrix?
Fibroblasts
3 protein fibers that strengthen loose connective tissues and how?
Collagen - supports tissue
Elastin - makes tissue elastic
Reticulin - helps support the network of collagen
Loose connective tissue that stores fat for insulation and fuel
Adipose
Where is dense connective tissue found and how do those work?
Tendons - attach muscles to bones
Ligaments - connect bone to bone
Special Connective Tissue
Cartilage, Bone, Blood
Form the bone
Osteoblasts
Contain marrow which generates red and white blood cells
Vascular Bones
Allow for movement in animals? Name each type
Joints
Ball and socket
Hinge
Gliding
Combination
3 types of muscle tissue
Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac
Transmit nerve impulses
neurons
4 parts of neurons
cell body, dendrites, axon, neuroglial cells
Division of the nervous system
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
Brain and spinal Cord
Integration and Interpretation of input
Central Nervous System
Nerves and ganglia
Communication of signal to and from the CNS to the rest of the body
Peripheral Nervous System
Collections of cell bodies
Ganglia
Helps return a variable to either a normal range or a set point
Negative Feedback
Loops occur in animals, but do not usually contribute to homeostasis
Enhance a change
Do not maintain homeostasis
Ex: blood clotting, Contractions in childbirth
Positive Feedback
Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss
Vasodilation
Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss
Vasoconstriction
Transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions
Arrangements of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allow for this
Countercurrent exchange
What controls thermoregulation?
Hypothalamus
Generate heat by metabolism
Birds and mammals
More energetically expensive
Endothermic
Animals gain heat from external sources
Most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-avian reptiles
Ectothermic
Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment through a process called
Acclimatization
A _______ allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
Ex: snakes
Conformer
A __________ uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external environmental fluctuation.
Ex: mammals
Regulator
Highly branched extensions
Conduct electrical impulses toward the cell body
Dendrites
Part of a neuron that contains the nucleus
Cell Body
Single cytoplasmic extension
Conducts impulses away from cell body
Axon
Also called neuroglia
Help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
Neuroglial cells
Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for voluntary movement
skeletal
Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for involuntary body activities
Smooth
Type of muscle tissue that is responsible for contraction of the heart
Cardiac
Example of a ball and socket joint
hips
Example of Hinge Joints
Elbow
Example of Gliding Joints
Vertebral Projections
Example of Combination Joint
Human Jaws
Control hypoctoyl elongation
Control stomatal opening
Control phototropism
Blue-light photoreceptors
The relative lengths of night and day, is the environmental stimulus plants use most often to detect the time of year.
Photoperoid
In mollusca, the development of the visceral mass is rotated around so the anus is near the head.
Torsion
Tool that depicts relative response of a process to different wavelengths
Action Spectrum
Effect of light on plant morphology
Photomorphosis
Flower when light period is shorter than a critical threshold
Short-day plants
Reduce transpiration by closing stomata
Slow leaf growth
Reduced exposed surface area
Growth of shallow roots is inhibited
Deeper roots continue to grow
Plant’s Response to Drought
Marks sunrise and sunset providing the biological clock with environmental cues
Phytochrome Conversion
3 classes of secondary chemicals
Nitrogen compounds, terpenoids, and phenolics
Cycles that are about 24 hours long and are governed by an “internal” clock.
Can be entrained to exactly 24 hours by the day/night cycle
Circadian Rhythms
Provides the plant with information about the quality of light
Phytochrome system
Is a physiological response to photoperoid
Photoperiodism
2 classes of light receptors
Blue-light receptors and phytochromes
Can activate the expression of genes involved in plant defenses
Methyljasmoic Acid
Enzymatic destruction of root cortex cells creates air tubes that help plants survive oxygen deprivation during flooding
Plant’s Response to Flooding
What can plant’s detect from light?
Light direction, intensity, and wavelength
Specialized plastids containing dense starch grains
Statoliths
Refers to changes in form that results from mechanical disturbance
Thigmomorphogenesis
Response to gravity
gravitropism
What must happen for a bud to form a flower instead of a vegetative shoot?
Meristems identity genes must first be switched on
Flowering signal
Florigen
Are governed by whether the critical night lengths sets a maximum number of hours of darkness
Long-day plants
Shaded plants receive more?
Far red than red light
Flowering is controlled by plant maturity, not photoperoid
Day-neutral plants
Pigments that regulate many of a plant’s responses to light throughout its life.
Seed Germination
Shade Avoidance
Phytochromes
Hormone Diseases
Gland hyposecretion
Gland hypersecretion
Tumor (benign or malignant)
What are hormone disease caused by?
Either overabundance or a limitation of a hormone
What hormone is involved with the pineal gland?
Melatonin
What hormone is involved with the pancreas gland?
Insulin/Glucagon
What hormone is involved with the Adrenal Medulla gland?
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
What hormone is involved with the Adrenal Cortex gland?
Glucocorticoids and Aldosterone
What hormone is involved with the parathyroid gland?
Parathyroid hormone
What hormone is involved with the thyroid gland?
Thyroxine, Triiodothyronine, and Calcitonin
What hormone is involved with the Anterior Pituitary gland?
Prolactin, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, MSH, Growth Hormone
What hormone is involved with the Posterior Pituitary gland?
Oxytocin, ADH
What type of hormones are insulin and glucagon and what do they do?
Antagonistic hormones and they help maintain glucose homeostasis
What is the names of the cluster of endocrine cells in the pancreas and what is their function?
Pancreatic islets / islets of Langerhans
Function: Produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin
How does insulin reduce blood glucose levels? (3 main ways)
- Promoting cellular uptake of glucose (most tissues except the brain)
- Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver
- Promoting fat storage
How does glucagon increase blood glucose levels? (2 main ways)
- Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver
- Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose
Is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells
Type 1 Diabetes mellitus (insulin dependent)
Involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors
Type 2 Diabetes mellitus (non-insulin dependent)
Possible Results of Diabetes (4)
- Peripheral Neuropathy
- Wounds
- Infections
- Nephropathy
- Retinopathy
Hormone? Induces uterine contractions and the release of milk
Oxytocin
Hormone? Enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Insect Hormone? Molting hormone.
Ecdysone
Insect Hormone? Low levels result in metamorphosis.
Juvenile Hormone
Class of compounds
Secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system
Mediate flight or fight responses
Includes epinephrine and norepinephrine
Catecholamines
Eat mainly autotrophs
Herbivores
Eat other animals
Carnivores
Regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter
Omnivores
Regularly consume dead organic matter
Detritivores
The breakdown of food particles outside of cells.
All Eumetazoans.
Extracellular Digestion
Food particles are engulfed by endocytosis and digested within food vacuoles.
Sponges and Single-celled species.
Intracellular Digestion
4 classes of essential nutrients
- Essential Amino Acids
- Essential Fatty Acids
- Vitamins (some)
- Minerals (all)
How many essential amino acids do animals and humans require?
Animals - 20
Humans - 9
What fatty acids must be obtained from diet?
Unsaturated fatty acids
2 categories of vitamins
- Fat-soluble
- Water-soluble
Where do both categories of vitamins go in the body?
Water-soluble are disposed of in the urine
Fat-soluble are stored in the liver and fatty tissues
How many vitamins must humans consume in their diet?
13
Uptake of nutrients by body cells.
Mainly occurs in the small intestine.
Absorption
The passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment.
Occurs in the rectum and waste leaves through the anus.
Elimination
Where does digestion begin?
In the mouth
What is the first stage of digstion, mechanical or chemical?
Mechanical
Deliver saliva to lubricate food.
Salivary Glands
Enzyme that initiates breakdown of glucose polymers?
Salivary Amylase
Junction that opens to both the esophagus and trachea?
Pharynx
Rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal?
Peristalsis
Valves that regulate the movement of material between compartments
Sphincters
What does the stomach do and what does it convert food into?
Function: stores food and secretes gastric juice
Converts to: acid chyme
What is gastric juice made up of?
Hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin
Function of pepsin?
Digests proteins
Function of mucus?
Protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
Function of parietal cells?
Secrete hydrogen and Chloride ions separately
Function of chief cells?
Secrete inactive pepsinogen
Function of the pancreas:
Produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin that are activated after entering the duodenum
Longest portion of the alimentary canal
Major digestive organ
Composed of duodenum, jejunum, and ilium
Is longer in herbivores than carnivores
Harder to digest vegetable matter
Small Intestine
Part of the large intestine that is connected to the small intestine?
Colon
Part of the large intestine that aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small and large intestines meet.
Cecum
All animals
Responds immediately regardless of previous exposure
Small set of receptors detect a large array of microbes
Type of Immunity
Innate Immunity
Only in vertebrates
Large set of receptors allow specific targeting of pathogens
Type of Immunity
Adaptive/Acquired Immunity
Function of hemocytes in invertebrate innate immunity?
Are phagocytic cells that digest foreign bodies
In invertebrate innate immunity, what do hemocytes trigger the production of and what is its function?
Trigger antimicrobial peptides and they disrupt the plasma membranes of bacteria and fungi
Recognition protein activates the Toll protein on the surface of immune response cells.
Signal transduction from Toll to the nucleus causes the synthesis of what?
Antimicrobial Peptides
What immunity responses do invertebrates not have?
Inflammatory response and natural killer cells
Barrier defense in vertebrates:
Skin, Mucus, Saliva, Tears, Lysozyme
Where are lysozymes found and what do they do?
Found in tears, saliva, and mucus
Dissolve bacterial walls
Cellular Innate Defenses (5)
White Blood Cells, Neutrophils, Macrophages, Eosinophils, and Dendritic Cells
Function of neurtophils:
Engulf and destroy microbes
Macrophages:
Are part of the lymphatic system and are found throughout the body
Function of Eosinophils:
Discharge destructive enzymes
Function of Dendritic Cells:
Stimulate development of acquired immunity
What do mast cells and basophils release and what is its function?
Release histamine
Promotes changes in blood vessels (vasodilation)
Function of prostaglandins:
Promote blood flow to areas
How do phagocytes migrate?
Through chemotaxis (following a chemical agent)
What is complement?
Group of protein lyses invading cells
Function of interferons:
Block cell-to cell transmission of viruses
Function of Natural Killer Cells:
Destroy body cells that are infected
A fluid rich in white blood cells, dead microbes, and cell debris, accumulates at the site of inflammation.
Pus
Function of leukocytes:
Recognize and respond to antigens
Where do T cells mature?
Thymus
Where do B Cells mature?
Bone marrow
Epitope?
Antigenic Determinant
What do B cells result in and what is its function?
Gives rise to plasma cells
Secretes proteins called antibodies / immunoglobulins
2 responses to adaptive immunity:
Humoral Immune Response and Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Which Adaptive Immune Response?
Involves activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies. Involves helper T cells.
Humoral Immune Response
Which Adaptive Immune Response?
Involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells. Involves helper T cells.
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Antibody Effect?
Occurs when a pathogen can no longer infect a host because is it bound to an antibody.
Neutralization
Antibody Effect?
Occurs when antibodies bound to antigens increase phagocytosis.
Opsonization
What is generated when antibodies with proteins of the complement system generate?
Membrane Attack Complex and Cell lysis
Are cell surface markers that identify as self
HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigens)
2 types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and where is each found?
- Class 1 MHC - found on every nucleated cell body
- Class 2 MHC - found on macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells
Present the epitope (antigen) to the immune system
Initiates activation of T and B cells
Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)
After the presented antigen activates a lymphocytes the cell divides rapidly making what?
Effector and memory cells
Develops naturally in response to an infection.
Active Immunity
Provides immediate, short-term protection. Conferred naturally when IgG crosses the placenta OR when IgA passes through breast milk.
Passive Immunity
Methods of Asexual Repoduction
Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Pathenogenesis
Which method of asexual reproduction?
Separation of a parent into 2 or more individuals of about the same size.
Many invertebrates.
Fission
Which method of asexual reproduction?
New individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones.
Budding
Which method of asexual reproduction?
Breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults.
Must be accompanied by regeneration (regrowth of lost body parts).
Fragmentation
Which method of asexual reproduction?
The development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg.
Parthenogenesis
Sex Determination:
XX - ? XY - ?
XX - female
XY - male
Sex Determination:
Haplodiploidy
Haploids - ?
Diploids - ?
Haploids - male
Diploids - female
Sex Determination:
ZW - ?
ZZ - ?
ZW - female
ZZ - male
Non-genetic Sex Determination
- Temperature Dependent
- Density Dependent
Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment.
External Fertilization
Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs in the tract.
Internal Fertilization
The release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle.
Ovulation
Area for insects in which sperm is stored during copulation?
Spermatheca
An opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems.
Common in non-mammalian vertebrates.
Cloaca
Another name for an egg in mammals?
Oocyte
Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum by the process of ?
Oogenesis
Function of Corpus Lutem
Secretes hormones that help to maintain pregnancy
Egg travels from the ovary to the uterus via the (2 names)
Oviduct / Fallopian Tube
Function of Cilia in the oviduct
Conveys the egg to the uterus
Function of Leydig Cells
Produce hormones and are scattered between the tubules
Name of the uterus lining
Endometrium
Where do sperm form in male mammals?
seminiferous tubules
The produce of gametes by meiosis, differs in females and males.
Gametogenesis
Production of male sperm
4 sperm form from each cycle of meiosis
Continues throughout life
Produces sperm from precursor cells in a continuous sequence.
Spermatogenesis
Development of mature oocytes and can take many years
Produces 1 egg
Ceases later in life - menopause
Long interruptions - pregnancy and nursing
Oogenesis
Promotes activity in the Sertoli cells (nourish developing sperm and are located within the seminiferous tubules)
FSH
regulates Leydig cells (secrete testosterone and other androgen hormones which in turn promote spermatogenesis)
LH
Regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative feedback mechanisms.
Testosterone
What hormone do Sertoli cells secrete?
Inhibin
2 cycles of female reproduction?
- Menstrual Cycle
- Ovarian Cycle
Follicle growth and an increase in the hormone estradiol characterize the ?
Follicular Phase
Following ovulation, the follicular tissue left behind transforms into the corpus litmus?
luteal phase
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) function?
Prevents menstruation
Are characteristic of most mammals
Endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
Length and frequency of estrus cycles caries from species to species
Estrous Cycles
Thickening of the endometrium is what phase of the uterine cycle?
proliferative phase
What is the outer layer of the blastocyst called and what is its function.
trophoblast
Mingles with the endometrium and eventually forms the placenta
Development of the body organs
Organogenesis
The fetus grows and is very active.
Mother may feel fetal movements.
Uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious.
2nd Trimester
Fetus grows and fills the space within the embryonic membranes.
Complex interplay of local regulators and hormones induces and regulates labor.
3rd Trimester
First 2-4 weeks, the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium.
All the major structure are present by 8 weeks and the embryo is called a fetus.
Main period of of organogenesis.
1st Trimester
