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Spring 2024 > Evolution Final > Flashcards

Evolution Final Flashcards

1
Q

evolutionary relationships of taxa organized into a nested hierarchy

A

Phylogeny

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2
Q

Evolution is directional and works toward a goal. IT DOES NOT!
Linear progression

A

Orthogenesis

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3
Q

any named group or organisms

A

Taxon

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4
Q

base of the tree; represents ancestral lineage

A

Root

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5
Q

moves forward from the root

A

Time

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6
Q

divergence points representing last common ancestor

A

Nodes

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7
Q

Represents evolutionary path

A

Branches

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8
Q

descendant taxa

A

Tips

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9
Q

continuous line of descent from ancestor to descendant. Each branch represents part of a longer lineage

A

Lineage

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10
Q

nested group that includes common ancestor and descendants

A

Clade

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11
Q

splitting of ancestral lineage into >1 descendant lineage, thus forming a clade

A

Cladogenesis

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12
Q

inferred from the divergence (node) that connects them

A

Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA)

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13
Q

traits in common because inherited from common ancestor

A

Character

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14
Q

Requirements for characters: (3)

A

Independent
Heritable
Variable

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15
Q

Types of characters: (5)

A

Morphological structures
DNA sequences
Chromosome numbers
Behavior
Chemical compounds

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16
Q

evolutionary changes from the Ancestral to the Derived State

A

Character State Transitions

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17
Q

state of that trait in the ancestor

A

Ancestral

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18
Q

how that trait has changed in the descendant lineage

A

Derived

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19
Q

derived trait unique to a clade or lineage; distinguishes it from ancestors

A

Apomorphy

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20
Q
  • Apomorphy that is shared by multiple taxa as a result of shared, most recent ancestry
  • Used to group taxa into clades
  • Among 2+ taxa
A

Synapomorphy

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21
Q

unique state for 1 taxon

A

Autapomorphy

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22
Q

ancestral state

A

Plesiomorphy

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23
Q

Plesiomorphy in 2+ taxa

A

Symplesiomorphy

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24
Q

Groups that includes common ancestor and all its descendants
Taxa can be members of multiple, nested monophyletic groups

A

Monophyletic Groups (Clades)

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25
Q

group that includes common ancestor + some descendants, excludes some descendants

A

Paraphyletic groups

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26
Q

group that includes some descendants, excludes common ancestor and some descendants

A

Polyphyletic group

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27
Q

similarity due to common ancestry
Synapomorphies, symplesiomorphies

A

Homology

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28
Q

similarity due to independent evolution of a character state – not from a common ancestor

A

Homoplasy

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29
Q

3 types of homoplasy

A

Convergence, Reversal, convergent reversals

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30
Q

independent evolution of a similar character

A

Convergence

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31
Q

loss of a derived trait and reversal to ancestral state

A

Reversal

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32
Q

loss of derived trait, happening over and over

A

Convergent Reversals

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33
Q

calculating genetic similarity
Fast, easy, but less robust

A

Genetic Distance

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34
Q

minimizing the total number of synapomorphic transitions

A

Parsimony

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35
Q

maximize homology and minimize homoplasy

A

Maximum Parsimony

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36
Q

closely-related taxon used to determine polarity and root the tree

A

Outgroup

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37
Q

Parsimony-Informative Characters Criteria:

A

> or equal to 2 states
For at least 2 states, each must be in at least 2 taxa

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38
Q

incorporate models, but computationally expensive

A

Maximum Likelihood

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39
Q

statistical support using pseudoreplicate data

A

Bootstrapping

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40
Q

mutations accumulate at a constant(ish) rate
More time = more mutations

A

Molecular Clock

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41
Q

inferring change since divergence
Scaled branch length are calibrated to substitutions

A

Branch Length

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42
Q

Steps toward speciation (3)

A

Isolation
Divergence
Secondary contact (reinforcement)

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43
Q

What can happen to lineages over time? (3 possibilities)

A

Change
Diverge
Independent evolutionary path

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44
Q

Distinct phenotypic traits
Aligns with what we see
Apply to asexual and extinct species
Social amoebas - Asexual
Limitations - no common criteria, homoplasy, polyp (asexual stage), sexual dimorphism
Cryptic Species:

A

Morphological

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45
Q

3 Ways to Diagnose a Species

A

Morphological, Behavioral, and Phylogenetic

46
Q

Species that are indistinguishable morphologically, but divergent in other traits

A

Cryptic Species

47
Q

group of interbreeding organisms that can produce viable and fertile offspring and are reproductively isolated from all other such groups
Strengths: meaningful diagnostic criteria
Limitations: extinct taxa, asexually reproducing, geographically separated (allopatry), huge gray area in “fertile” and “viable”

A

Biological

48
Q

Limitations to Biological

A

Extinct taxa, asexually reproducing, geographically separated, huge gray area in “fertile” and “viable”

49
Q

Strengths of Biological

A

meaningful diagnostic criteria

50
Q

Limitations of Morphological

A

no common criteria, homoplasy, polyp (asexual stage), sexual dimorphism

51
Q

Smallest monophyletic group
Strengths: based on what has occurred
No/little gene flow (isolated)
Long enough for synapomorphies to arise
Irreducible group
Descent from a common ancestor
Unique character states
Applies to:
Extinct species
Asexual species
Cryptic species

A

Phylogenetic

52
Q

Limitations to Phylogenetic

A

Phylogenies are hypothesis
Can lead to A LOT of recognized species

53
Q

Geographic isolation of populations

A

Allopatric speciation

54
Q

2 categories of allopatric speciation

A

dispersal and vicariance

55
Q

portion of ancestral species crosses a barrier

A

Dispersal

56
Q

ancestral species split by barrier

A

Vicariance

57
Q

Isolation of populations within the same geographic range

A

Sympatric speciation

58
Q

Drivers of sympatric speciation (4)

A

Polyploidy, Phenology, Adaptation to different habitats, Sexual selection/assortative mating

59
Q

Stronger in sympatry
Maintaining separate evolutionary lineages during secondary contact

A

Reinforcement of Divergence

60
Q

no parental competition

A

Novel habitat

61
Q

outcompete parentals

A

Transitional habitat

62
Q

2 categories of hybridization

A

Novel habitat and transitional habitat

63
Q

a geologic process by which one plate of the earth’s crust is forced below the edge of another plate

A

Subduction

64
Q

Can’t self replicate
Can’t store and transmit information

A

Proteins

65
Q

Can’t independently express phenotype

A

DNA

66
Q

Very unstable

A

RNA

67
Q

Stores information → nucleotides
Part of cellular machinery → ribosomes
Base molecule for bioenergy → ATP, GTP
Found in all life

A

RNA World Hypothesis

68
Q

Evidence: variation in catalyzing rate based on genotype
Fast = favored
Genes increase in frequency
RNA World Hypothesis

A

Ribozyme

69
Q

extra-terrestrial origins

A

Panspermia

70
Q

Panspermia
Complex organic molecules
Amino acids (L and R)
Hydrocarbons
Liquid water

A

Panspermia Molecular Seeding

71
Q

Cellular
DNA-based genome
Protein

1.Ribosomes for protein synthesis
2.Universal Genetic Code (20aa)
3.Only Use L-isomer Amino Acids
4.ATP/GTP bioenergy

A

Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

72
Q

Mineralized remains of past (& ancient) life
Major evolutionary events
Origins of key traits
Diversification
Extinction
BIG patterns of macroevolution

A

Fossils

73
Q

the study of fossilization

A

Taphonomy

74
Q

Types of Fossils:
Organics replaced with minerals
Can detail internal anatomy

A

Permineralization

75
Q

Types of Fossils:
Portions of original organism
Amber, freezing, desiccation

A

Preserved Organic Material

76
Q

Types of Fossils:
Organics decay
Impression filled in with minerals
Details of surface of organism

A

Casts & Molds

77
Q

Evidence of behavior/activity
Not organism directly

A

Trace

78
Q

Form under the same conditions
But SMALL: <1mm

A

Microfossils

79
Q

Rapid divergence and diversification
Most modern animal phyla

A

Cambrian Explosion

80
Q

Hypotheses for Cambrian rapid diversification

A
  1. Rise in O2 (increase in photosynthetic bacteria)
  2. Allowing animals to catch and eat each other - Evolutionary Arms Race
  3. Ecological Niches
81
Q

ancestral lineage rapidly diversifies into multiple descendent lineages due to novel selective trigger

A

Adaptive Radiation

82
Q

2 types of adaptive radiation

A
  1. Ecological Opportunity
  2. Morphological Innovation
83
Q

Reptile-like traits (symplesiomorphies)
Synapsid skull (synapomorphy)

A

Stem Animals

84
Q

Middle ear bones in mammals are similar to skull bones in reptiles

A

Bone Homology

85
Q

Graphical representation of the range of morphological diversity

A

Morphospace

86
Q

Changes occur gradually and are unrelated to speciation events
Morphological diversity spreads out both horizontally and vertically
Changes occur within a lineage until speciation

A

Phyletic gradualism

87
Q

Long periods of stasis followed by rapid change and speciation
Morphological diversity spread out ONLY horizontally
Vertical branches stay in the same morphospace until speciation

A

Punctuated equilibrium

88
Q

Patterns of macroevolution and what they differ in

A

Same amount of change
Differ in:
Time for change to accumulate
What happens between divergence events (nodes)

89
Q

tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises

A

Prosimians

90
Q

gorillas, humans, chimpanzees & bonobos, orangutans, gibbons & siamangs, Old World & New World Monkeys

A

Anthropoids

91
Q

Synapomorphies of the Apes

A

Relatively large brains
“Absence” of tail
More erect posture
Increased hip and ankle flexibility
Increased wrist & thumb flexibility

92
Q

Synapomorphies of African Great Apes

A

Enlarged ovaries & mammary glands
Fusion of some wrist bones
Enlarged brow ridges
Shortened canine teeth
Elongated skulls

93
Q

Differences in Gene Expression in Humans and Chimpanzees

A

Humans make more miRNA (micro RNA) = more genes suppressed in humans

94
Q

Molecular Evidence = Human and Chimp

A
  • Mitochondrial genes
    Maternal inheritance
  • Gene on Y chromosome
    Parental inheritance
  • Nuclear, autosomal genes
    Biparental inheritance
95
Q

descendent lineages inherit different subsets of the original alleles from the ancestral population

A

Incomplete lineage sorting

96
Q

humans and all species more closely related to humans than to chimps

A

Hominins

97
Q

directly descended from (i.e. parents and grandparents)

A

Ancestor

98
Q

share a common ancestor with (i.e. aunt and cousins)

A

Relative

99
Q

species formation through gradual transformation from ancestral form (no branching)

A

Anagenesis

100
Q

formation of new taxa evolutionary divergence from an ancestral form

A

Cladogenesis

101
Q

4.2-1.9 mya → eastern Africa
Gracile Archaic Hominins
Diagnostic traits
Bipedalism
Flatter faces; smaller canines

A

Australopithecus

102
Q

Robust Archaic Hominins
2.7-1.0 mya → eastern & southern Africa
Diagnostic Traits
Megadont teeth
Robust jaws with massive jaw muscles
Sagittal crest
Wide, dish-shaped face

A

Paranthropus

103
Q

Possible First Humans
2.4-1.6 mya → eastern & southern Africa
Diagnostic Traits
Larger brains
Rounder skull & Flatter faces
Stone tools → butchered prey

A

Transitional Homo (e.g. Homo habilis)

104
Q

1.7-0.4 mya → Africa & Asia
Definitive Pre-Modern Humans
Diagnostic traits
Smaller, flatter faces, teeth, jaws
Taller with longer legs
Reduced sexual dimorphism

A

Homo erectus / ergaster

105
Q

600-30 kya (k=thousand) → Africa, Asia, Europe
Definitive Pre-Modern Humans
Sister taxa to us
Diagnostic morphological traits:
Massive brains - larger than modern
humans
Heavy brow ridge
Short, stocky bodies
Diagnostic Cultural Traits
Used fire
Buried dead
Lived in shelters
Made and wore clothing
Made symbolic objects

A

Homo neanderthalensis / heidelbergensis

106
Q

Definitive Pre-Modern Humans
300-400 kya → Asia, Melanesia
Sister taxa to Neanderthals

A

Deisovans

107
Q

Anatomically-Modern Humans
200 kya - present → everywhere
Diagnostic traits
Large brains
Flat face with high forehead & chin
Lighter in weight skeleton
Definitive art, music, clothes, fire, bury
dead, religion, etc.

A

Homo sapiens

108
Q

Hypotheses for Origin of Homo sapiens

A

Out of Africa and Multi-regional

109
Q

Evolved in Africa, the dispersed to other regions; subsequently replacing other species in the process OR hybridizing and assimilating

A

Out of Africa Hypothesis

110
Q

Evolved concurrently in different regions but maintained species cohesion via gene flow

A

Multi-regional

111
Q

Traits that entered the human gene pool from Neanderthals:

A

Bitter Taste Perception
Some aspects of
Immune response
Lipid metabolism
Skin & hair pigmentation

112
Q

Traits that entered the human gene pool from Denisovans:

A

Cold tolerance genes
High altitude genes
Immune response
Genes for sense of smell

Spring 2024 (5 decks)

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