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A&P I Lecture > exam 3 > Flashcards

exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What does the term foramen mean?

A

an opening in the bone

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2
Q

What does the term fossa mean?

A

a shallow depression in the bone

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3
Q

What does the term process mean?

A

an extension from the bone, usually for muscle attachment

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4
Q

What does the term canal mean?

A

a narrow passageway through the bone

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5
Q

What does the term alveolus/alveoli mean?

A

a pit or socket

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6
Q

What does the term sinus mean?

A

a hollow cavity inside a bone that lessens its weight

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7
Q

What does the term head mean?

A

a rounded, ball-shaped portion of bone

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8
Q

What does the term tubercle mean?

A

a rough area like a bulge/bump, usually for muscle attachment

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9
Q

What does the term tuberosity mean?

A

a rough ridge for muscle attachment

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10
Q

What does the term condyle mean?

A

a smooth surface that rocks back & forth

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11
Q

What does the term meatus mean?

A

a passageway or canal

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12
Q

What does the term suture mean?

A

an immovable joint between 2 bones

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13
Q

What is the skeletal system?

A

includes bones (206 in adults, more in children), ligaments that connect bone-to-bone, & cartilages; all are made of connective tissue

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14
Q

What are the 2 groups of bones?

A

axial skeleton & appendicular skeleton

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15
Q

What is the axial skeleton?

A

along the central axis of the body; includes ribs, sternum, vertebrae, skull/cranial bones, & auditory ossicles

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16
Q

What is the appendicular skeleton?

A

includes appendages (arms & legs) and girdles (bones that anchor arms & legs to torso)

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17
Q

What are the 2 types of girdles?

A

pectoral & pelvic

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18
Q

What is the pectoral girdle?

A

collar bone (clavicle) & shoulder blade (scapula)

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19
Q

What is the pelvic girdle?

A

2 hip bones (os coxa)

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20
Q

What tissue are bones made of?

A

connective (cells scattered apart in abundant extracellular matrix)

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21
Q

What is bone matrix?

A

hard; made of 2 main components which are hydroxyapatite & collagen

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22
Q

What is hydroxyapatite?

A

contains Ca++ that is very hard & strong yet brittle

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23
Q

What is collagen?

A

a flexible protein that gives bone matrix slight flexibility to prevent it from shattering

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24
Q

What are the different types of cells found in bone?

A

osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoprogenitors, & osteoclasts

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25
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

cells that secrete bone matrix; as matrix flows around them, they become trapped and change into osteocytes

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26
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

osteoblasts trapped in matrix; these cells reside in oval-shaped spaces called lacunae

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27
Q

What are osteoprogenitors?

A

cells that become osteoblasts when matured

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28
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

large, multinucleate cells that release enzymes that dissolve bone matrix for 2 reasons

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29
Q

What are the 2 reasons that osteoclasts dissolve bone matrix?

A

to remodel the bone’s structure & release Ca++ from the bone to help keep blood calcium levels within normal range

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30
Q

One of bone’s main functions is to act as a “Ca++ bank,” what are the different roles of this process?

A

osteoblasts deposit Ca++, osteoclasts withdraw Ca++, & hydroxyapatite is the bank that stores Ca++; this process is controlled hormonally

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31
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

results from too much calcium being withdrawn, making the matrix weak

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32
Q

What are the different shapes of bone?

A

flat, long, short, sesamoid, irregular, & Wormian/sutural

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33
Q

What are flat bones?

A

found in skull, sternum, scapula, os coxa; site of hematopoiesis

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34
Q

What is hematopoiesis?

A

site of blood cell formation; major bone function

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35
Q

What is erythropoietin?

A

a hormone that controls hematopoiesis; released by the kidneys

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36
Q

What are long bones?

A

longer than they are wide; have specific internal anatomy & lots of features/parts; include femur, humerus, radius, ulna, fingers, toes, etc.

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37
Q

What are short bones?

A

cube-shaped; absorb or transfer force; includes ankle & wrist bones

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38
Q

What are sesamoid bones?

A

smooth & seed-shaped; includes the patella

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39
Q

What are irregular bones?

A

oddly shaped & do not fit into any other categories; includes vertebrae & some facial bones

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40
Q

What are Wormian/sutural bones?

A

tiny bone chips found in the skull where 2 bones meet; vary in size, number, & position

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41
Q

In what 2 ways can bone cells be arranged?

A

compact bone or spongy/cancellous bone

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42
Q

What type of bone looks solid which provides strength to bear weight?

A

compact bone

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43
Q

What is compact bone made of?

A

cylinders of bone called osteons with an opening in the center called the central canal for passage of blood vessels & nerves

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44
Q

What are the walls of an osteon made of?

A

rings of matrix called lamellae arranged in concentrix fashion; along the lamellae, there are osteocytes inside lacunae

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45
Q

What are perforating canals?

A

they connect with the central canal to form passageways for blood vessels to reach all areas of the osteon

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46
Q

What are canaliculi?

A

tiny cracks that form around the lacunae to act as passageways for nutrients & waste to enter/exit the osteocyte

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47
Q

What are interstitial lamellae?

A

they fill in the gaps between multiple osteons & cement them together to add strength

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48
Q

What bones does compact bone travel the length of?

A

long bones; it provides strength & structure & acts as a lever for motion

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49
Q

What type of bone looks poorly organized but is not?

A

spongy/cancellous bone

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50
Q

What is spongy bone made of?

A

osteocytes inside lacunae arranged in a fashion that forms needle-like pieces of bone called trabeculae

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51
Q

What is spongy bone made to do?

A

to withstand force of muscle action & it changes based on muscular activity

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52
Q

Where can spongy bone be found?

A

at ends of long bones; abundant in flat bones where it produces blood cells & acts as a cushion for protection

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53
Q

What is red bone marrow?

A

the site of hematopoiesis; found between the trabeculae of spongy bone

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54
Q

What are the functions of bone?

A

allows movement by permitting leverage, protects delicate internal organs, provides strength, blood cell production, and stores Ca++ & allows for its withdrawal when needed

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55
Q

What are the possible arrangements for compact & spongy bone?

A

diploe bone structure & long bone structure

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56
Q

What is the diploe bone structure?

A

“spongy bone sandwich” = a layer of spongy bone located between 2 layers of compact bone; used to protect from injury & act as a shock absorber

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57
Q

What is the long bone structure?

A

found only in long bones; made of specific parts

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58
Q

What are epiphyses?

A

the ends of a long bone

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59
Q

What is the diaphysis?

A

shaft of a long bone

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60
Q

What is the metaphysis?

A

narrow zone which is the zone of growth in length of immature bones

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61
Q

What is articular cartilage?

A

narrow “cap” of hyaline cartilage (smooth, slick, glassy white connective tissue) which provides a slick surface for movement

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62
Q

What are characteristics of the matrix of hyaline cartilage?

A

sturdy but slightly flexible; contains glucosamine, chondrotin, & hyaluronic acid

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63
Q

What are the 2 types of bone membranes?

A

endosteum & periosteum

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64
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

thin membrane that comes from blood vessel walls; found inside the marrow cavity & between trabeculae of spongy bone

65
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

superficial membrane made of 2 portions

66
Q

What are the 2 portions of the periosteum?

A

osteogenic & fibrous

67
Q

What is the osteogenic portion?

A

deeper layer of the periosteum; contains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitors, & osteoclasts; acts to increase bone size in diameter

68
Q

What is the fibrous portion?

A

very tough fibrous connective tissue that fuses into muscles’ tendons

69
Q

What are Sharpey’s fibers?

A

small, short tufts of fibers that tightly hold the periosteum onto the bone

70
Q

What is the marrow cavity?

A

filled with yellow bone marrow; in healthy adults, this is mostly fat

71
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate/growth plate?

A

area in or near metaphyses & is made of cartilage that pushes the diaphysis & epiphyses apart as it develops; made of 4 zones

72
Q

What are the 4 zones of the epiphyseal plate?

A

zone of resting cartilage, zone of proliferation, zone of hypertrophy, & zone of calcified cartilage

73
Q

What is the zone of resting cartilage?

A

anchors plate onto bone

74
Q

What is the zone of proliferation?

A

made of rapidly dividing cartilage cells; increases number of cells in the growth plate

75
Q

What is the zone of hypertrophy?

A

where newly formed cartilage cells increase in size

76
Q

What is the zone of calcified cartilage?

A

Ca++ is added to matrix to change it into bone matrix; represents newest part of bone

77
Q

What happens to the epiphyseal plate as bones reach maturity?

A

it becomes inactive; at that point, it is known as the epiphyseal line

78
Q

What is the last bone to ossify?

A

the clavicle (collar bone)

79
Q

At what age do bones fully mature in men & women?

A

men= 25ish; women= 21ish

80
Q

What are the nutrient foramina?

A

small openings in the bone where blood vessels & nerves penetrate; they are scattered along the bone, but concentrated in & near the epiphyses

81
Q

What are the 2 processes through which bone can be formed?

A

interosseus formation & endochondral ossification

82
Q

What is interosseus formation?

A

forms flat bones

83
Q

What is endochondral ossification?

A

forms long bones

84
Q

At conception, nuclei of sperm & egg fuse to form what?

A

a 1-cell embryo which undergoes rapid cell division

85
Q

What is a morula?

A

a solid ball of cells where the DNA can result in the formation of any type of tissue

86
Q

What are mesenchyme cells?

A

the stem cells from the morula that become connective tissue; some of these will become bone

87
Q

What do mesenchyme cells do as they migrate through the embryo?

A

assemble at the proper location & in the proper shape of the future bone

88
Q

What are chondroblasts?

A

some mesenchyme cells specialize into these; they secrete hyaline cartilage matrix

89
Q

How does the cartilage matrix receive nutrients & remove wastes?

A

it is avascular, so diffusion supplies nutrients & removes waste from chondroblasts & chondrocytes

90
Q

What are chondrocytes?

A

chondroblasts that have become trapped in matrix; they reside in small oval-shaped spaces called lacunae

91
Q

What do the cartilage cells form?

A

a tiny “bone model” (not actually bone — just cartilage)

92
Q

What is the perichondrium?

A

a membrane that covers the cartilage bone model; this membrane is penetrated by blood vessels

93
Q

Once the perichondrium is formed, how are nutrients delivered throughout the cartilage matrix?

A

the blood vessels in the perichondrium deliver nutrients to the cartilage & diffusion carries these nutrients to the lacunae & cells

94
Q

As the cartilage bone model increases in size, what happens to the cells in the center?

A

they die & disintegrate from not receiving adequate nutrients; this leaves a hole in the center which becomes the marrow cavity

95
Q

What occurs simultaneously as the marrow cavity is formed?

A

Ca++ enters the matrix through the blood vessels at the perichondrium; this causes the previously flexible matrix to harden; bone cells also flow into this region

96
Q

What is the bone collar?

A

a ring of matrix surrounding the periosteum; formed by osteoblasts; this structure prevents nutrient diffusion

97
Q

Now that blood vessels can pass through the matrix of the model, what happens?

A

more osteoprogenitors are allowed to enter; they become osteoblasts which later become osteocytes

98
Q

Ca++ & bone cells enter the cartilage matrix & the bone collar is formed allowing even more bone cells inside. What do these processes do?

A

they replace the cartilage bone model with bone; this forms the long bone’s diaphysis, but the epiphyseal plate is still active

99
Q

How is the endosteum formed?

A

some blood vessels penetrate the marrow cavity & the walls of these blood vessels become this membrane

100
Q

In embryos & very young children, hematopoiesis can occur in a place that it cannot in adults. Where?

A

the endosteum/marrow cavity; at this stage, this is red bone marrow which will later become yellow bone marrow & can no longer produce blood cells

101
Q

What phenomenon can occur in cases of extreme anemia in adults?

A

the yellow bone marrow can revert back to red bone marrow for blood cell production

102
Q

Where does bone growth in length take place?

A

at the epiphyseal plate

103
Q

What does appositional bone growth (in width) take place?

A

at osteogenic portion of the periosteum

104
Q

What does bone growth require?

A

proper minerals, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin A, & specific hormones

105
Q

What are the proper minerals that are used to form the matrix (hydroxyapatite) ?

A

calcium ions, phosphorus, flouride, & iron

106
Q

Why is vitamin C required for bone growth?

A

it manufactures collagen

107
Q

Why is vitamin D required for bone growth?

A

it absorbs Ca++ from the gastrointestinal tract

108
Q

Why is vitamin A required for bone growth?

A

it stimulates osteoblasts

109
Q

What hormones are required for bone growth?

A

thyroid hormone, estrogen, testosterone, insulin-like growth factor, & growth hormone

110
Q

What does the thyroid hormone do?

A

stimulates osteoblasts

111
Q

What do estrogen & testosterone do?

A

stimulate osteoblasts

112
Q

What does insulin-like growth factor do?

A

stimulates cell division at the epiphyseal plate

113
Q

What does growth hormone do?

A

causes liver to release insulin-like growth factor; released from pituitary gland

114
Q

What is the normal blood Ca++ levels?

A

9-11 mg Ca++ per 100 mL of blood

115
Q

What happens when blood Ca++ levels are too high?

A

heart rhythm is affected

116
Q

What happens when blood Ca++ levels are too low?

A

breathing is compromised

117
Q

Blood Ca++ levels are controlled hormonally by what?

A

PTH (parathyroid hormones) & calcitonin

118
Q

PTH (parathyroid hormones) act to increase blood Ca++ levels. How?

A

increase osteoclast action, increase g.i. absorption of Ca++, & decrease amount of Ca++ excreted in urine (kidneys)

119
Q

What are parathyroid glands?

A

small, round glands on the posterior side of the thyroid gland; they release PTH

120
Q

Calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland & acts to decrease blood Ca++ levels. How?

A

increases osteoblast activity & decreases osteoclast activity

121
Q

What is the thyroid gland?

A

it is butterfly-shaped & on the anterior side of the voice box

122
Q

What are articulations?

A

joints; where 2 bones meet; classified by the range of motion (ROM)

123
Q

What is a synarthrosis?

A

articulation that allows little to no movement; includes synostoses, sutures, gomphoses, & synchondroses

124
Q

What is a synostosis?

A

2 bones fuse into 1 bone

125
Q

What is a suture?

A

2 bones fit together closely like a puzzle with many tiny ligaments that lock the bones together

126
Q

What is a gomphosis?

A

connects root of tooth into socket (alveolus); holds the tooth securely in place using the periodontal ligament

127
Q

What is a synchondrosis in a synarthrotic joint?

A

2 bones are held together by a bridge of rigid cartilage; ex. = 1st rib + sternum & 2nd rib + sternum

128
Q

What is an amphiarthrosis?

A

articulation that allows slight movement; includes synchondrosis & syndesmosis

129
Q

What is a synchondrosis in an amphiarthrotic joint?

A

2 bones are joined by a pad of fibrocartilage; these cushion the bones, space the bones apart at a proper distance, & allow movement; ex. = intervertebral disks

130
Q

What is a syndesmosis?

A

long sheet-like ligament that holds bones together but allows motion; ex. = interosseus membrane

131
Q

What is a diarthrosis?

A

articulation that is freely moving with the greatest ROM; it has a complex anatomy with a lot of parts

132
Q

What parts are included in a diarthrotic joint?

A

joint capsule, ligaments, & tendons

133
Q

What parts may be in a diarthrotic joint but not always?

A

meniscus, bursae, & tendon sheath

134
Q

What is the joint capsule?

A

where the periosteum of 1 bone extends like a sleeve to adjacent bone; this space is filled with synovial fluid

135
Q

What is synovial fluid?

A

clear, watery, & slick which allows smooth motion, decreases friction, distributes nutrients, & removes waste

136
Q

What are ligaments?

A

tough bands of connective tissue that join adjacent bones

137
Q

What are tendons?

A

tough bands of connective tissue that attach muscle to bone

138
Q

What is a meniscus?

A

a pad of fibrocartilage that cushions the ends of bones

139
Q

What are bursae?

A

sacks of fluid that cushion the ends of bones

140
Q

What is a tendon sheath?

A

a tubular bursa that surrounds tendons, nerves, & sometimes blood vessels

141
Q

What is flexion?

A

decreasing the angle on the anterior/posterior plane

142
Q

What is extension?

A

increasing the angle on the anterior/posterior plane

143
Q

What is hyperextension?

A

increasing the angle on the anterior/posterior plane to greater than 180°

144
Q

What is lateral flexion?

A

decreasing the angle between head & vertebra on a lateral plane

145
Q

What is lateral extension?

A

increasing the angle between head & vertebra on a lateral plane

146
Q

What is dorsiflexion?

A

lifting toes off the ground

147
Q

What is plantarflexion?

A

lifting heel off the ground

148
Q

What is abduction?

A

moving away from the body’s midline

149
Q

What is adduction?

A

moving toward the body’s midline

150
Q

What is circumduction?

A

making a circle with the distal end of a bone

151
Q

What is rotation?

A

turning the head left or right

152
Q

What is pronation?

A

palm of hand turns posteriorly

153
Q

What is supination?

A

palm of hand turns anteriorly

154
Q

What is protraction?

A

moving a body part anteriorly in a horizontal plane

155
Q

What is retraction?

A

reversing the protracted movement

156
Q

What is opposition?

A

moving the thumb to the fingers

157
Q

What is elevation?

A

raising a body part to a superior level

158
Q

What is depression?

A

lowering a body part to an inferior level

A&P I Lecture (6 decks)

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