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A&P I Lecture > exam 1 BACKGROUND > Flashcards

exam 1 BACKGROUND Flashcards

1
Q

What is anatomy?

A

study of structure (detailed; look at structure, position, composition, & relation)

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2
Q

What is physiology?

A

study of function (how does this thing work?)

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3
Q

What are the levels of organization? (in order from smallest to largest)

A

chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, & organismal level

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4
Q

What is the chemical level?

A

atoms that combine to form molecules & 3-D molecules (called macromolecules)

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5
Q

What is the cellular level?

A

organelles, atoms, ions, & molecules become organized into cells (some contain a nucleus)

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6
Q

What is an example of an organelle?

A

mitochondria; many macromolecules are also organelles

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7
Q

What is the tissue level?

A

similar cells from similar origins work together as a unit

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8
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues?

A

epithelial, connective, muscular, & nervous

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9
Q

What is the organ level?

A

2 or more tissues that work together for the same function

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10
Q

What is the organ system level?

A

2 or more organs that work together

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11
Q

What is the organismal level?

A

all of the systems working together

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12
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

the body “tries” to keep everything constant/regulated

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13
Q

What is matter?

A

anything that has mass and takes up space

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14
Q

What is mass?

A

amount of matter in an object (weight is the gravitational force on that mass)

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15
Q

What are elements?

A

the simplest type of matter made of identical particles called atoms

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16
Q

What are atoms?

A

basic building block of all matter; designated by an atomic number & composed of protons, neurons, and electrons

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17
Q

What is an atomic number?

A

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

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18
Q

What is atomic weight?

A

sum of the number of protons & neutrons in an atom (kind of)

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19
Q

Where are the protons, neutrons, & electrons located in an atom?

A

protons & neutrons are in the nucleus; electrons travel in the shell

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20
Q

What is the maximum number of electrons that the 1st shell can hold?

A

2 electrons

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21
Q

What is the maximum number of electrons that the 2nd & 3rd shells can hold?

A

8 electrons

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22
Q

When are atoms most stable?

A

when the outer shell is filled to the maximum (shells must be filled in order)

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23
Q

What do chemical bonds do?

A

transfer/share electrons between atoms so that the outer shells are filled to (or approach) the maximum; as a result, molecules are formed

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24
Q

What are the 2 types of chemical bond formations?

A

ionic bond formation & covalent bond formation

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25
Q

What is ionic bond formation?

A

when an electron moves from one atom to another, forming charged particles called ions

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26
Q

What is covalent bond formation?

A

a pair of electrons is shared; there are 2 different types

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27
Q

What are the 2 different types of covalent bond formations?

A

polar & non-polar

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28
Q

What is a non-polar covalent bond?

A

equal sharing of the electron pair

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29
Q

What is a polar covalent bond?

A

unequal sharing of the electron pair

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30
Q

What happens as a result of a polar covalent bond?

A

electrons are “pulled” in a way that causes 1 part of the molecule to gain a slight positive charge while the other parts become slightly negative

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31
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

A

occur when areas of positive & negative adhere to each other (not a true chemical bond); these areas are weak associations between adjacent polar molecules; only formed by polar covalent bonds

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32
Q

What does hydrogen bond formation result in?

A

surface tension, capillary action, frost formation, & protein structure

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33
Q

What is an example of surface tension?

A

water spider walking on the surface; a paper clip floating in water

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34
Q

What is an example of capillary action?

A

pulling blood from finger prick; it is the movement of water due to forces

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35
Q

What is an example of frost formation?

A

snowflake structure; ice formation; results in frostbite

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36
Q

What is protein structure?

A

gives proteins a precise 3-D shape

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37
Q

What is organic chemistry based on?

A

the element carbon

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38
Q

What can carbon do to fill it’s outer shell?

A

bond with up to 4 atoms at a time

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39
Q

What are the 4 classes of biologic organic molecules?

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, & nucleic acids

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40
Q

Which elements does carbon often form covalent bonds with?

A

hydrogen & oxygen; it can also covalently bond to nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, & a host of other atoms

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41
Q

What are carbohydrates commonly called?

A

sugars & starches

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42
Q

What do carbohydrates contain?

A

carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen with the ratio 1:2:1; they have a chemical formula of (CH2O)n where “n” is the number of carbon atoms present

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43
Q

What do carbohydrate molecules do?

A

serve a structural purpose in our cells & are broken down to provide our cells with the energy required to carry out daily functions

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44
Q

How can carbohydrates be classified?

A

by their size & solubility (the ability of a substance to dissolve)

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45
Q

What are the 3 classes of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, & polysaccharides

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46
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

simple sugars such as glucose & fructose; they can be joined through a chemical reaction called dehydration to produce disaccharides

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47
Q

How are monosaccharides used?

A

as an energy source for our cells; these molecules are the most soluble

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48
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined; they are present in many foods & include sugars such as sucrose and lactose

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49
Q

How are disaccharides used?

A

they are useful in energy generation when first dissembled through a chemical reaction called a hydrolysis reaction

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50
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

formed when many monosaccharides are joined through a dehydration reaction; of all carbohydrate types, these molecules are the least soluble

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51
Q

How are polysaccharides used?

A

they are large molecules found as structural components in both plants & animals

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52
Q

What are the characteristics of polysaccharides in plants?

A

these molecules are called cellulose & are used to form plant cell structure; they make plant material “crunchy”

53
Q

What are the characteristics of polysaccharides in animals?

A

these molecules are known as glycogen & are used as a storage form of energy

54
Q

What are lipids?

A

non-polar molecules; they cannot mix well with polar molecules such as water; a chemical term used to describe these molecules is hydrophobic (water-fearing)

55
Q

What are lipids made of?

A

long chains of carbon with hydrogen, oxygen, & often nitrogen and phosphorus

56
Q

What are the 4 classes of lipids?

A

fats, phospholipids, prostaglandins, & steroids

57
Q

What are fats used for?

A

these molecules serve as energy storage; they provide insulation & padding for delicate body organs

58
Q

What are phospholipids?

A

unique hybrid molecules that contain 2 non-polar hydrophobic carbon chains (called “tails”) & 1 phosphate (PO4) molecule (called its “head”)

59
Q

What portion of phospholipids are hydrophilic (water-loving)?

A

the “head” region of the molecule; it can easily mix with water

60
Q

How are phospholipids used?

A

they are integral parts of cell membranes; this molecule forms an excellent barrier as it’s head end can mix with polar molecules like water while it’s tail end can only mix with non-polar substances

61
Q

What are prostaglandins?

A

lipids that help the body respond to injury

62
Q

How are prostaglandins used?

A

these molecules promote inflammatory responses throughout the body; they aid in blood clot formation & influence blood pressure

63
Q

What are steroids?

A

these molecules are made of carbons arranged in 4 ring-like structures; they include many hormones & cholesterol; they are also present in cell membranes

64
Q

What are proteins?

A

big molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & usually sulfur

65
Q

How are proteins used?

A

these molecules are used as enzymes, energy sources, & structural components in the cell; they are made of subunits called amino acids

66
Q

How are amino acids joined?

A

by using a type of covalent bond called a peptide bond

67
Q

What causes “folding” in proteins?

A

the formation of hydrogen bonds between various areas of the protein due to the amino acid arrangement

68
Q

What happens as a result of “folding”?

A

proteins have a very specific & often unique 3-D structure

69
Q

What happens if the 3-D structure of a protein is altered?

A

the protein’s characteristics are usually altered as well

70
Q

How can proteins be denatured?

A

by altering the pH of their environment, by heating them, or sometimes by exposing them to extreme cold

71
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

large molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, & phosphorus arranged in units called nucleotides

72
Q

How are nucleic acids used?

A

they form the genetic instructions that our cells use to manufacture proteins; we call these DNA & RNA

73
Q

What is cytology?

A

cell biology

74
Q

What 3 areas make up the cell?

A

cell/plasma membrane, organelles & cytoplasm, and nucleus

75
Q

What is the cell membrane made of?

A

2 layers of phospholipids oriented tail-to-tail

76
Q

What is the area inside of the cell called?

A

intracellular fluid/matrix (ICF)

77
Q

What is the area outside of the cell called?

A

extracellular fluid/matrix (ECF)

78
Q

What does the phospholipid bilayer do?

A

separates the ICF from the ECF, but it allows molecules to enter & exit; it is selectively permeable

79
Q

What do cholesterol units do and where are they located?

A

they hold the phospholipids together to prevent unraveling; they are in the cell membrane between phospholipids

80
Q

What structure is scattered throughout the cell membrane to act as a channel?

A

3-D proteins that come in different shapes/forms

81
Q

What are branched carbs?

A

they are attached to some proteins & they serve as receptors/signals

82
Q

What is cytoplasm?

A

mostly water in a semi-solid form that also contains ions & amino acids used to build proteins

83
Q

What are examples of ions?

A

sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl-), calcium (Ca++), potassium (K+), etc.

84
Q

What are organelles & where are they found?

A

clumps of macromolecules where chemical reactions occur; found in the cytoplasm

85
Q

What are examples of organelles?

A

mitochondria, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body/apparatus, lysosome, etc.

86
Q

What is the mitochondria?

A

capsular shaped (with folded inner membrane) that extracts ATP (cell energy) from glucose when oxygen is present

87
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

2 subunit organelle with RNA between the subunits that assembles proteins from the intracellular amino acids

88
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

a series of channels in 2 types: rough & smooth

89
Q

What is the difference between the rough ER & smooth ER?

A

rough: has ribosomes attached & modifies newly formed proteins; smooth: no ribosomes attached & it manufactures specific lipids such as cholesterol

90
Q

What is the golgi body/apparatus?

A

disc shaped; packages newly made proteins for export

91
Q

What is the lysosome?

A

spherical structures that store molecules such as high-powered enzymes (called lysozymes)

92
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

usually 1 centrally located structure; some cells have many or none

93
Q

What is the nuclear membrane?

A

a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell; it fuses in spots to make nuclear pores so materials can pass in & out of nucleus

94
Q

What is nucleoplasm?

A

cytoplasm that is within the nucleus

95
Q

What are nucleoli?

A

dark regions in the nucleus where ribosomes are made

96
Q

What are histone proteins?

A

structures that the DNA is wrapped around (like a spool of thread); DNA & RNA are housed in the nucleus

97
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

the proteins within the cell that act as a skeleton

98
Q

What are the different parts of the cytoskeleton?

A

microfilament, intermediate fibers, thick filaments, & microtubule

99
Q

What is the microfilament?

A

thin hair-like proteins that pass through the cytoplasm; it prevents the cell from tearing

100
Q

What are the intermediate fibers?

A

thin proteins that have organelles & macromolecules attached; they move these items through the cytoplasm (like a clothes line)

101
Q

What are the thick filaments?

A

thick proteins that enable cellular contraction

102
Q

What are the microtubules?

A

tiny yet thick tubes that provide structure & a passageway for molecules

103
Q

What is glycocalyx?

A

sticky carbs; membrane carbs are sticky & allow cells to adhere

104
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

when cells membranes fuse in spots; these are abundant in cells that undergo mechanical stress (skin, muscles, uterus)

105
Q

What is a gap junction?

A

when membranes of adjacent cells form passageways that hold cells together yet allow stuff to pass from one cell to the next

106
Q

Where can gap junctions be found?

A

in heart muscle that forms intercalated disks; in embryonic tissues where connexons allow material to pass from cell to cell

107
Q

What is a tight junction?

A

barrier substance that prevents materials from leaking between cells (in intestinal lining)

108
Q

What is histology?

A

the study of tissues; there are only 4 types in the body

109
Q

What is the epithelium?

A

covers body surfaces; lines hollow tubes, organs, & cavities; forms glands (sweat)

110
Q

What is epithelium made of & how is it classified?

A

cells close together with only a little ECF between them; each cell has 1 centrally located nucleus; classified by cell shape & number of layers

111
Q

Epithelium is avascular; what does this mean?

A

no blood vessels penetrate these tissues

112
Q

What are the shapes of epithelial tissue?

A

squamous= flat & scale-like; cuboidal= box-shaped; columnar= rectangular and usually have a ciliates apical surface; transitional= variable shape that allows stretching

113
Q

What is the apical surface?

A

the surface exposed to the environment

114
Q

What is the basal surface?

A

the surface attached to what is underneath

115
Q

What are the different layers of epithelial tissue?

A

simple= 1 cell layer thick; stratified= many cell layers thick; pseudostratified= 1 layer of cells that share the basal surface but are varying heights so it looks like multiple layers

116
Q

What does “brush border” refer to?

A

the fuzzy appearance of cilia

117
Q

What is connective tissue?

A

it connects body parts physically or physiologically; made of cells that are scattered apart in abundant extracellular matrix

118
Q

What can the extracellular matrix be in connective tissue?

A

it can be liquid (blood), semi-solid (fat), slick (cartilage), or hard (bone)

119
Q

Fibers of protein may be present in the matrix of connective tissue; what are these fibers like?

A

they may be parallel (ligaments), which gives strength; they may criss-cross forming a grid deep to the skin; they may be stretchy & made of elastin (tendons)

120
Q

Do all types of connective tissues contain fibers?

A

no; many lack them & are very smooth

121
Q

What is muscular tissue?

A

can respond to stimulus & contract, stretch, & return to its original state (recoil)

122
Q

What are the 3 kinds of muscles?

A

skeletal, smooth, & cardiac

123
Q

What are skeletal muscles?

A

made of cylinder shaped cells with many nuclei along the edges (peripheral located; multinucleate)

124
Q

What are smooth muscles?

A

made of spindle shaped cells with one central nucleus per cell; located in the walls of hollow organs (stomach, bladder, uterus, etc.)

125
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

occurs when smooth muscle contracts; contents of the organ are moved in a wavelike fashion

126
Q

What is cardiac muscle?

A

found in the walls of the heart; made of branched interwoven cells for strength; joined together by lots of desmosomes & special gap junctions called intercalated disks that help coordinate contraction

127
Q

What is nervous tissue?

A

made of cells called neurons that can generate, send, & respond to electrical stimuli & to chemicals called neurotransmitters

128
Q

Which type of tissue provides one of our body’s major control mechanisms?

A

nervous tissue

A&P I Lecture (6 decks)

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