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A&P I Lecture > exam 2 > Flashcards

exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the CNS?

A

made of the brain & spinal cord

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2
Q

What is the PNS?

A

everything outside of the brain & spinal cord

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3
Q

How long is the spinal cord?

A

about 18 inches in adults

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4
Q

How big is the diameter of the spinal cord?

A

about the size of a pinky finger

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5
Q

What shape is the spinal cord?

A

cylindrical but flat on its anterior & posterior surfaces

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6
Q

What is the foramen magnum?

A

a hole in the skull where the spinal cord begins

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7
Q

What does the spinal cord run continuous with?

A

the medulla oblongata

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8
Q

What is the spinal/vertebral canal?

A

a hole within the vertebra where the spinal cord is located

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9
Q

What is the spinal cord protected by?

A

bones (vertebrae), membranes called meninges, spaces & their contents, and dendiculate ligaments

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10
Q

What bones protect the spinal cord?

A

vertebrae

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11
Q

What are the meninges that protect the spinal cord?

A

pia mater, arachnoid mater, & dura mater

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12
Q

What is pia mater?

A

delicate, thin connective tissue that is anchored onto the cord; it’s the deepest layer

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13
Q

What is the arachnoid?

A

delicate web-like connective tissue

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14
Q

What is the dura mater?

A

tough fibrous connective tissue; it’s the most superficial layer

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15
Q

What do all the meninges surround?

A

the spinal cord & brain

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16
Q

What is the epidural space?

A

between the dura mater & the bones; cushions the cord

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17
Q

What does the epidural space contain?

A

adipose (fat) which is shown as a yellow color, connective tissue, fibers, lots of blood vessels

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18
Q

What is the subdural space?

A

deep to the dura mater; between the dura mater and the arachnoid; cushions cord

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19
Q

What does the subdural space contain?

A

serous fluid which is thin, clear, & watery with lots of ions & salts

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20
Q

What is the subarachnoid space?

A

deep to arachnoid; between the arachnoid & the pia mater

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21
Q

What does the subarachnoid space contain?

A

CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) which is a straw-colored fluid that contains water, ions, salts, some nutrients, & some cellular waste

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22
Q

What are dendiculate ligaments?

A

thin bands of connective tissue that extend laterally, anchoring the cord in its left & right sides

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23
Q

What is the cervical enlargement?

A

wide part in the spinal cord at the base of the neck; accommodates many nerves that innervates the neck, upper back, arms, & face

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24
Q

What is the thoracic region?

A

narrow part of the spinal cord through the chest area

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25
Q

What is the lumbar enlargement?

A

wide area of the spinal cord between the 9th & 12th thoracic vertebra; accommodates the nerves that innervate the legs

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26
Q

What is the conus medullaris?

A

part of the spinal cord past the lumbar enlargement that becomes narrower on one end

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27
Q

What is the filum terminale?

A

1 strand of pia mater extending from the tip of the conus medullaris; non-nervous; anchors cord inferiorly

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28
Q

What is the cauda equina?

A

group of nerves extending from the conus medullaris

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29
Q

What is the spinal cord made of?

A

an area of gray matter surrounded by white matter

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30
Q

What is the gray matter area of the spinal cord made of?

A

dendrites, cell bodies, & axons of association & motor neurons that are arranged in regions called horns

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31
Q

What is the anterior median fissure?

A

a deep split lined with pia mater

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32
Q

What is the posterior median sulcus?

A

a shallow depression

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33
Q

What is the gray commissure?

A

a narrow strip of gray matter that connects the right & left sides of the cord

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34
Q

What is the central canal?

A

small opening in the center of the gray commissure that holds CSF

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35
Q

What is the white matter area of the spinal cord made of?

A

tracts (bundles of axons in the CNS) that carry impulses up and down the cord & it is organised into columns

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36
Q

What are ascending tracts?

A

afferent; they carry sensory information into the CNS

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37
Q

What is the lateral spinothalamic tract?

A

ascending; carries information such as crude touch, pain, & temperature through the spinal cord to the thalamus

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38
Q

What is the spinocerebellar tract?

A

ascending; carries sensations of body position to the brain’s cerebellum

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39
Q

What is the spinotectal tract?

A

ascending; carries sensations from eyes that result in blinking & watering

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40
Q

What does the ascending tracts include?

A

lateral spinothalamic, spinocerebellar, & spinotectal

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41
Q

What are descending tracts?

A

efferent; carry motor impulses out of CNS to effectors (muscles & gland tissue)

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42
Q

What is the corticospinal tract?

A

descending; controls voluntary movement of small muscle groups such as those that move the fingers

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43
Q

What is the reticulospinal tract?

A

descending; controls the muscles of posture when the body is moving

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44
Q

What is the rubrospinal tract?

A

descending; controls the coordinated muscle action of body movement

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45
Q

What is the tectospinal tract?

A

descending; controls movement of the head in response to vision

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46
Q

What are roots?

A

bundles of nerve axons & dendrites attached to the lateral edges of the cord; named by their location; serve as attachments to the PNS

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47
Q

What are the anterior/ventral roots?

A

contain the axons of motor neurons

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48
Q

What are the posterior/dorsal roots?

A

contain the axons of sensory neurons

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49
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion?

A

a swollen region lateral to the dorsal roots; it is a clump of sensory neuron cell bodies

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50
Q

What is a monosynaptic reflex?

A

1 sensory & 1 motor neuron; can be ipsilateral or contralateral; occurs within only 1 synapse

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51
Q

What is a polysynaptic reflex?

A

AT LEAST 1 sensory, 1 motor, & 1 association neuron; can be ipsilateral or contralateral; occurs within 2 or more synapses

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52
Q

What is the withdrawal reflex?

A

allows us to withdraw from pain by stimulating some muscles & inhibiting opposing muscles; polysynaptic; can be ipsilateral or contralateral

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53
Q

What is the crossed extensor reflex?

A

crosses cord from one side to the other; contralateral

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54
Q

What is the intersegmental reflex?

A

uses white matter tracts to send an impulse up & down cord; may involve the brain; can be ipsilateral or contralateral

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55
Q

What does ipsilateral mean?

A

stays only on 1 side of the cord

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56
Q

What does contralateral mean?

A

crosses from 1 side of the cord to the other

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57
Q

What would occur if the mixed spinal nerve area was severed?

A

sensory neurons could not come in & motor neurons could not go out

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58
Q

What would occur if the dorsal root ganglion area was severed?

A

sensory neurons could not come in

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59
Q

What would occur if the ventral root was severed?

A

motor neurons could not go out

60
Q

What is a reflex?

A

a programmed predictable response to a stimulus; most of the time it only involves the spinal cord

61
Q

How can reflexes be grouped?

A

the type of response & their processing site

62
Q

What are the types of response in reflexes?

A

somatic & autonomic

63
Q

What are the processing sites in reflexes?

A

spinal & cranial

64
Q

What is a somatic reflex?

A

involuntary control of skeletal muscles (coughing, sneezing, blinking, etc.)

65
Q

What is an autonomic reflex?

A

controls/adjusts ANS effectors which are smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & gland tissue (sweat, chill bumps, digestion, etc.)

66
Q

What are spinal reflexes?

A

occur in the spinal cord only

67
Q

What are cranial reflexes?

A

involves the brain

68
Q

What parts does each mixed spinal nerve branch into?

A

dorsal ramus, rami communicantes, & ventral ramus

69
Q

What is the dorsal ramus?

A

innervates the skin & muscles of the back

70
Q

What is the rami communicantes?

A

2 small branches that connect to the ANS

71
Q

What is the ventral ramus?

A

large; innervates the rest of the body that the dorsal ramus & rami communicantes do not

72
Q

What is a plexus?

A

a “tangle” formed from adjacent ventral rami

73
Q

What are the different plexus groups?

A

cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, & coccygeal

74
Q

What is the cervical plexus?

A

inferior to the base of the skull; innervates the neck, diaphragm muscle, & parts of the face and shoulders

75
Q

What is the brachial plexus?

A

near cervical enlargement; innervates the arms, fingers, & shoudlers

76
Q

What is the lumbar plexus?

A

near lumbar enlargement; innervates the hips & legs

77
Q

What is the sacral plexus?

A

arises from the superior part of the conus medullaris; innervates the hips & legs

78
Q

What is the coccygeal plexus?

A

arises from the inferior part of the conus medullaris; innervates the skin around the coccyx (tailbone)

79
Q

How many pairs of mixed spinal nerves are there?

A

31; they each pass between vertebra & can be organized in a very specific manner

80
Q

Mixed spinal nerves are organized into layers; what is the first layer?

A

each axon is wrapped in connective tissue called endoneurium

81
Q

Mixed spinal nerves are organized into layers; what is the second layer?

A

groups/bundles of axons called fascicles are held together by connective tissue called perineurium

82
Q

Mixed spinal nerves are organized into layers; what is the third layer?

A

many fascicles are held together in one large group by connective tissue called epineurium

83
Q

How much does the brain weigh?

A

about 3.5 pounds

84
Q

Why is the brain folded?

A

to allow ample surface area for neurons/neuroglia while still fitting in our skull

85
Q

Does the brain require continuous oxygen?

A

yes; it gets 20% of the blood flow from each heartbeat

86
Q

What is the brain protected by?

A

skull bones, meninges, CSF, astrocytes, acidic (low) pH, & other neuroglia such ependymal cells & microglia

87
Q

How do the skull bones protect the brain?

A

they form a “brain case” called the cranium that has foramina that allow blood vessels & nerves to pass in/out

88
Q

How is the dura mater in the brain different from the dura mater in the spinal cord?

A

it is divided into 2 layers

89
Q

What is the meningeal layer?

A

soft, deeper part of the brain’s dura mater; contours around the brain’s folds (gyri & sulci)

90
Q

What is the dural sinus?

A

space between the 2 layers of the brain’s dura mater; contains serous fluid and dural sinus blood vessels

91
Q

What is the periosteal layer?

A

superficial part of brain’s dura mater; tough fibrous connective tissue that adheres to the inner surface of the skull

92
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

a straw-colored, sticky fluid made of water, ions, salts, white blood cells, proteins, amino acids, etc. in a specific composition with a specific pH

93
Q

What structure continually secretes CSF?

A

the choroid plexus

94
Q

What is the choroid plexus?

A

a combination of blood vessels & ependymal cells; produces more CSF than our body even needs

95
Q

Where does CSF flow from after being produced by the choroid plexus?

A

the 2 C-shaped lateral ventricles in each half of the brain

96
Q

What does CSF flow through after the lateral ventricles?

A

the interventricular foramen of Monro (2 small holes; 1 in each lateral ventricle)

97
Q

What structure does CSF fill after the interventricular foramen of Monro?

A

the 3rd ventricle (in space of diencephalon)

98
Q

What structure does CSF travel down after the 3rd ventricle?

A

the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius (long passageway near brain stem)

99
Q

Where does the CSF flow after the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius?

A

the 4th ventricle which is a triangular cavity near the cerebellum

100
Q

What structure does the CSF exit through after flowing through the 4th ventricle?

A

3 holes called aperatures: median aperature, & 2 lateral aperatures

101
Q

What is the median aperature?

A

hole that connects to the central canal of the spinal cord for the flow of CSF

102
Q

What are the 2 lateral aperatures?

A

holes that send CSF into posterior part of the subarachnoid space

103
Q

After exiting through the aperatures, where does CSF travel?

A

down the posterior side of the cord & up the anterior side; flows around the brain in the subarachnoid space

104
Q

What are arachnoid villi?

A

finger-like extensions that reabsorb CSF while in the subarachnoid space; they allow CSF to be picked up by dural sinus blood vessels

105
Q

What are the functions of CSF?

A

distributes nutrients & absorbs cell waste from CNS, cushions brain & spinal cord, & keeps the brain suspended in the skull because CSF has the same density as the brain

106
Q

How do astrocytes protect the brain?

A

they help form the blood-brain barrier which only allows small molecules to pass from brain blood vessels into brain tissue

107
Q

Why is it important for the blood-brain barrier to allow small molecules in?

A

small molecules include oxygen, carbon dioxide, sodium ions, potassium ions, & glucose which are vital in our body

108
Q

Why is it important for the blood-brain barrier to keep big molecules out?

A

it keeps big molecules such as proteins out which limits bacteria from entering the brain and spreading infection

109
Q

What is the downside to the blood-brain barrier keeping big molecules out?

A

it also prohibits most beneficial drugs from entering the brain

110
Q

What happens when oxygen levels are low?

A

carbon dioxide levels are high & CO2 combines with H2O which produces carbonic acid

111
Q

Carbonic acid lowers pH; why does this help protect our brain?

A

it dilates specific blood vessels especially in the brain & it stimulates breathing centers in the brain so we breathe deeper & faster

112
Q

How do ependymal cells help protect the brain?

A

they secrete & circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

113
Q

How do microglia help protect the brain?

A

they engulf & destroy harmful materials in the CNS

114
Q

What are the 3 main brain regions?

A

telencephalon, diencephalon, & brainstem

115
Q

What are characteristics of the telencephalon (cerebrum)?

A

highly folded due to rapid growth; divided into 2 “layers”

116
Q

What is the cortex?

A

outer region of the cerebrum made of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, & axons; gray matter

117
Q

What are the brain’s white matter tracts?

A

found in the cerebrum; bundles of mostly myelinated axons that connect brain areas; include association, projection, & commissural tracts

118
Q

What are association tracts?

A

connect within 1 hemisphere of the brain

119
Q

What are projection tracts?

A

connect vertically, ultimately connecting the cerebrum & the spinal cord

120
Q

What are commissural tracts?

A

connect left & right hemispheres (ex. = corpus callosum)

121
Q

What can be found scattered in all 3 white matter tracts of the cerebrum?

A

clumps of neuron cell bodies called nuclei

122
Q

What is the basal nucleus?

A

controls subconscious skeletal movement

123
Q

What are sulci & gyri?

A

sulci = grooves, gyri = ridges

124
Q

What does the frontal lobe control?

A

skeletal muscle movement, personality, & judgement

125
Q

What is Broca’s area?

A

housed in the left frontal lobe; translates thought into speech

126
Q

What does the parietal lobe do?

A

receives sensations from the body & allows us to identify an object by its shape & texture

127
Q

What is the temporal lobe?

A

receives & processes auditory sensations; houses auditory memory & correlation

128
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

housed in the left temporal lobe; translates speech to thought

129
Q

What is prosody?

A

housed in the right temporal lobe; adds emotional context to spoken words

130
Q

What is the occipital lobe?

A

receives & processes visual sensations; houses visual memory & correlation

131
Q

What is the insula?

A

it is hidden; deep to the temporal lobe; believed to be involved in short-term & emotional memory

132
Q

What does the diencephalon include?

A

thalamus, hypothalamus, & pineal body/gland

133
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

oval masses of gray matter (1 per hemisphere); routes impulses from brain stem to telencephalon

134
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

makes & transports hormones; regulates hunger, thirst, rage, aggression, & body temperature

135
Q

What is the pineal body/gland?

A

small cluster of neurons that release hormones which control cyclical behavior (sleep patterns)

136
Q

What are the 3 regions of the brainstem?

A

mesencephalon, metencephalon, & myelencephalon

137
Q

What is the mesencephalon?

A

midbrain; contains corpora quadrigemina; has nuclei that maintain muscle tone & consciousness

138
Q

What are corpora quadrigemina?

A

4 round bumps through which auditory & visual reflexes are contained in the mesencephalon

139
Q

What are the 2 parts of the metencephalon?

A

the pons & the cerebellum

140
Q

What is the pons?

A

oval-shaped; connects brain areas & houses respiratory centers that control breathing (stimulated by acidic blood pH)

141
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

highly folded with many gyri & sulci; adjusts the muscles relative to body position & allows appropriate force from muscle contraction

142
Q

What are Purkinje cells?

A

housed in cerebellum; highly branched neurons

143
Q

What is the myelencephalon?

A

medulla oblongata; continuation of spinal cord’s ascending & descending tracts

144
Q

What is decussation of tracts?

A

tracts that cross from one side to the other; there are many found in the myelencephalon

145
Q

What brainstem region contains nuclei that control blood pressure, heart rate, contraction force, blood vessel diameter, breathing, & alertness?

A

myelencephalon

A&P I Lecture (6 decks)

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