Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
what are single celled fungi called
A
yeasts
2
Q
what are the weblike bodies of multicellular fungi called
A
mycelia
3
Q
what part of a mushroom is the fruiting body
A
reproductive structure
4
Q
what 2 things of the mushroom is made of hyphae
A
reproductive structure and mycelium
5
Q
what is hyphae made of
A
made of strings of cells
6
Q
what divides most hyphae into compartments
A
septa
7
Q
what does coenocytic hyphae consist of
A
multinucleate cells
8
Q
what are the spore producing structures formed when hyphae are yoked
A
swimming gametes and spores, zygosporangia, basidia (club fungi), asci (sac fungi)
9
Q
how do you remember swimming gametes and spores
A
individual gametes
10
Q
how do you remember zygosporangia
A
2 headed
11
Q
how do you remember basidia
A
4 spores on the end
12
Q
how do you remember asci
A
8 spores in chambers
13
Q
where are conidia located
A
ends
14
Q
what is conidia for
A
asexual spores
15
Q
how do fungi eat
A
decomp, digest outside of body and excrete enzymes
16
Q
are fungi plants
A
no, closer to animals than plants, no chloroplasts for photosynthesis
17
Q
do fungi have cell walls, if yes, what are they made of
A
chitin - a network sugar
18
Q
what is ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal fungi
A
ecto - around the roots and individual cells , endo - penetrating cell walls,
19
Q
what are lichens made of
A
mutualistic partnership between ascomycete and cyanobacterium or alga
20
Q
why are fungi good decomposers
A
can turn trees into soft soil, large surface area of mycelium makes nutrient absorption exceptionally efficient
21
Q
what type of digestion do fungi do, describe it
A
extracellular, digestion that takes place outside the organisms, simple compounds resulting from enzymatic action are absorbed by hyphae, lignin and cellulose digested by fungi
22
Q
what enzyme does fungi use to break down lignin, describe the process
A
lignin peroxidase - catalyzes oxidation step that creates a free radical and leads to series of uncontrolled reactions that split the polymer into smaller units
23
Q
what does fungi use to break down cellulose, describe the process
A
enzymes called cellulases that are nutrient poor, oxygen rich, extract nutrients and release carbon, secrete the enzymes into extracellular environment, cellulases together convert cellulose into glucose that the fungus can absorb and use as a food source
24
Q
describe the sexual reproduction part of the fungi life cycle (drawing)
A
mycelium -> PLASMOGAMY -> heterokaryotic mycelium (n +n) -> nuclei -> KARYOGAMY -> zygote -> MEIOSIS -> spore producing structure -> spores -> MITOSIS -> mycelium
25
describe the asexual reproduction part of the fungi life cycle (drawing)
mycelium -> MITOSIS -> spore producing structure -> MITOSIS -> spores -> MITOSIS -> mycelium
26
describe the variation in sexual reproduction in fungi (drawing)
mature spore producing body (n+n) -> KARYOGAMY -> MEIOSIS -> spores dispersed in wind -> MITOSIS -> spores germinate to form hyphae -> PLASMOGAMY (n+n) -> dikaryotic mycelium begins to grow (n+n) -> mature spore producing body
27
what key traits do animals that are eukaryotes share
multicellularity with cells that lack cell walls and have an extensive extracellular matrix ( external cytoskeleton so sugars sit outside cell structure), heterotrophy - obtain necessary carbon compounds from other organisms, most ingest their food rather than absorbing it, motility - move under their own power at some point in their life cycle
28
what is the most basal animal lineage
sponges (phylum Porifera) - multicellularity originated in sponge like animal
29
what characteristics do sponges share with choanoflagellates
both are benthic (live at the bottom of aquatic environments), and sessile (adults live permanently attached to a substrate rather than moving freely)
30
how do sponges and choanoflagellates feed
make water current to pull nutrients and pull water in then out, use flagella to propel water, filter feed foo, extracellular matrix
31
what is a epithelium
layer of tightly joined cells that covers interior and exterior surface of animal, thing that some sponges have
32
what are spicules
stiff spikes of silica or calcium carbonate that provide structural support to the ECM
33
what distinguishes lineages of sponges
types of spicules
34
what genomic data has said that maybe sponges are not the first
ctenophora are sister group to all other animals and are only animal that lacks microsRNAs (possibly that trait was lost over time),
35
biologists once considered spongers to be colonies of single celled protists because sponge cells are able to reaggregate after being dissociated. What evidence may have helped them to realize that sponges are actually animals and not colonial protists
they have an extracellular matrix surrounding their cells
36
what are diploblasts
animals whose embryo have two types of tissues/ germ layers
37
what are the germ layers for diploblasts
ectoderms (outside skin), endoderm (inside skin)
38
what are triploblasts
animals whose embryos have 3 germ layers, ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm (middle skin)
39
what does the ectoderm give rise to
skin and nervous system
40
what does the endoderm give rise to
the lining of the digestive tract
41
what does the mesoderm give rise to
circulatory system, muscle, internal structures like bone and most organs
42
what 2 groups of animals are recognized as diploblasts
ctenophora (comb jellies), cnidaria (jellyfish, corals, sea pens, hydra, and anemones)
43
how do larval and adult ctenophores swim, how does it change the body's shape
uses cilia, but some species adults have contractile tissue that can change the body's shape, many cnidarians can change the shape of their bodies,
44
what homologous genes for contractile proteins exist for animals
actin and myosin
45
actin and myosin are used in ctenophores and cnidarians in contractile cells, where are they derived from
endoderm and/or ectoderm, called epitheliomuscular cells, functionally similar to true mesodermal muscle cells but evolved independently
46
what the different kinds of body symmetry
radial and bilateral
47
what is radial symmetry and animals that have it
at least 2 planes of symmetry, cnidarians, ctenophores, some sponges, (evolved independently in the echinoderms)
48
what is bilateral symmetry
single plane of symmetry and long narrow bodies
49
what is the cnidarians body symmetry
appears radially symmetric, but bilaterally symmetric
50
what is the theory around the evolution of the head and nervous system
tightly linked to the evolution of bilateral symmetry
51
what are the head and nervous systems in spongers, cnidarians, and ctenophores
sponges lack nerve cells and symmetry, radially symmetrical cnidarians and ctenophores have nerve cells that are organized into a nerve net, some ctenophores may also have clusters of nerves called ganglia
52
what is a ganglia
clusters of nerves \that gain central structure
53
what are the nervous systems of bilaterians like
more diverse ranging from a nerve net to a more complex central nervous system, some neurons clustered into tracts or cords, other neurons clustered in masses called ganglia, advantageous to have many neurons concentrated at that end, nerve tracts carry information down length of body
54
what the evolution of the CNS coincide with
cephalization
55
what is cephalization
evolution of a head where structures for feeding, sensing the environment and processing information are concentrated
56
what is a cerebral ganglion
brain
57
where is the brain located in
the head
58
what does the brain do
large mass of neurons that is responsible for sending and receiving information to and from the body, network of centralized system
59
what is a coelom
enclosed fluid filled body cavity between the tubes that provides a space for oxygen and nutrients to circulate, enables the internal organs to move independently of each other
60
what are coelomates
have an enclosed body cavity completely lined with mesoderm, ex: earthworm
61
what are acoelomates
no enclosed body cavity, ex: flatworm
62
what are pseudocoelomates
enclosed body cavity partially lined with mesoderm, ex: roundworm
63
what are the 2 major subgroups of embryonic development
protostomes (first mouth), named for embryonic development of mouth before anus; deuterostomes (second mouth) named from embryonic development of anus before mouth
64
what are the growth patterns of lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans
lophotrochozoans - grow incrementally
ecdysozoans - grow by molting
65
what are the 2 major groups within protostomes
lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans
66
what are lexamples of lophotrochozoans
mollusks, annelids, flatworms, and rotifers
67
how do lophotrochozoans grow
continuously when conditions are good
68
what are examples of edysozoans
arthropods and nematodes
69
how do ecdysozoans grow
by shedding their external skeletons or outer coverings and expanding their bodies
70
what is segmentation
division of body or a part of body into a series of similar structures
71
what is a defining characteristic of vertebrates
segmented backbone
72
what is the monophyletic lineage within the chordata
vertebrates
73
what are invertebrates
paraphyletic group where segmentation is conspicuous in annelids and arthropods
74
what did more predators v prey cause
more variations
75
what is a key aspect of cephalization
concentration of sensory organs in the head region as well as a mouth and brain, which is a great deal of diversity of sensory abilities and structures among animals
76
what senses do most animals have, what do only some animals have
common: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch; some: sense temperature, magnetic field, electric field, barometric pressure, gravity
77
what can animals be classified as for feeding
detritivores, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
78
what are detritivores
which feed on dead organic matter
79
what are herbivores
which feed on plants or algae
80
what are carnivores
feed on other animals
81
what are omnivores
eat both plants and animals
82
what are parasites
harvest nutrients from parts of their hosts, usually smaller than their victims
83
what are endoparasites
live nside their hosts and usually have simple wormlike bodies
84
what are ectoparasites
live outside their hosts and usually have limbs or mouthparts that allow them to grasp the host
85
what are the 4 feeding tactics observed in animals
suspension feeders/ filter feeders, deposit feeders, fluid feeders, mass feeders
86
what are the functions of animal locomotion
finding food, finding mates, escaping from predators, dispersing to new habitats
87
what are the 3 types of skeletal systems
hydrostatic, endoskeletons, exoskeletons
88
what is a hydrostatic skeleton
support from flexible body wall in tension surrounding fluid or soft tissue under compression
89
what is an endoskeleton
derive support from rigid structures inside the body such as bones in vertebrates and spicules in sponges
90
what are exoskeletons
derive support from rigid structures on the outside of the body, such as the external armor of arthropods
91
how do rotifera reproduce
asexually through mitosis by producing diploid eggs that can mature into adults without being fertilized
92
what is parthenogenesis
reproduce sexually through mitosis by producing diploid eggs that mature into adults without being fertilized
93
how does asexual reproduction occur
fission/ splitting and by budding
94
what is viviparous
live bearing species (develop inside placenta, live birth)
95
what is oviparous
egg bearing species (eggs)
96
what is ovoviviparous
egg live bearing species (sea horse, shark)
97
what are characteristics of viviparous species
retain the embryos in females body during development, give birth to live young, include most mammals,
98
what are characteristics of oviparous species
lay eggs outside to develop independently of the mother, embryos are nourished by yolk within the egg, most of species are
99
what are ovoviviparous species
female retains eggs inside her body during early development, growing embryos are nourished by yolk inside the egg and not by nutrients transferred directly from the mother, females give birth to well developed young, includes many insects, fish, and reptiles
100
what is the ploidy level of most sexually reproducing animals and why
diploid dominant life cycles because haploid gametes are single celled and short lived, with some exceptions
101
what is metamorphosis
drastic change from one developmental stage to another
102
what happens during indirect development
embryogenesis -> metamorphosis -> growth and maturation
103
what happens during embryogenesis
produces larvae which look radically different from adults, live in different habitats and eat different foods
104
what happens during metamorphosis
transforms larvae into juveniles which look like adults, live in the same habitats and eat the same foods, are still sexually immature
105
what happens during the growth and maturation
transform the juveniles into adults, which are the reproductive stage in the life cycle
106
describe the life cycle of a sea urchin (drawing)
egg and sperm -> FERTILIZATION -> zygote -> EMRYOGENESIS -> larva -> METAMORPHOSIS -> juvenile -> GROWTH -> adult -> GAMETOGENESIS
107
what are the most ancient of all major animal lineages
Porifera (sponges), Ctenophora (comb jellies), Cnidaria (jellyfish and others)
108
what are characteristics of porifera
sponges, diverse group of sessile, mostly marine, suspension feeders, common in rocky, shallow water habitats of oceans, providing food and habitats for other organisms
109
what are characteristics of ctenophora
comb jellies, although a few species of comb jellies live on the ocean floor, most are planktonic and predatory, fewer than 200 species have been described, lack stinging cells that are characteristics of cnidarians
110
what are characteristics of cnidaria
jellyfish, corals, anemones, hydroids; cnidarians are found in all of the worlds oceans, key synapomorphy is a specialized cell called cnidocyte, which is used in prey capture
111
what is the life cycle of cnidocyte (drawing)
egg and sperm -> FERTILIZATION -> zygote -> larva -> feeding polyps -> reproductive polyp -> MITOSIS -> medusa -> MEIOSIS -> egg
112
what are reef building corals
ecosystems engineers - each poly secretes a calcium carbonate endoskeleton that is left behind long after polyp dies, each generational of corals builds on secretions of its predecessors, gradually creating the physical structure of a coral reef, tropical waters are typically nutrient poor and hold little food for suspension feeders like coral polyps, corals have mutualistic relationship with photosynthetic protists and green algae, photosynthetic cells hosted by corals produce nutrients for the coral, the corals provide habitat and protection to the cells
113
what are the 5 major animal lineages in the tree of life
sponges, comb jellies, corals and jellyfish, protostomes and deuterostomes
114
what are the most diverse and abundant
of the 30 animal phyla described t o date, 22 are protostomes
115
what protostome phyla has little diversity
priapula - only has 16 named species
116
what protostomes have a lot of diversity
85,000 mollusks have been named, 1.2 million arthropod species
117
How can protostomes have important ecological roles
live in virtually every aquatic and terrestrial habitat, can be detritivores, herbivores, or carnivores,
118
what is the importance of protostomes
major direct source of food for humans, provide ecosystem services, some damage crops, some produce materials such as silk and pearls, cause or transmit human disease and are parasites
119
what are the 2 most important model organisms
fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and roundworm (Caenorhabditis elegans)
120
what is the diversity of protostomes like
big diversity, exact order of branches under debate, bilaterian ancestor was likely bilaterally symmetric and triploblastic, gave rise to array of body plans among bilaterians during the Cambrian explosion
121
what are major protostome phylas
insects (arthrpoda), nematoda, mollusca, platyhelminthes, annelida, chordata, echinodermata, cnidaria, porifera, others
122
how do biologists distinguish protostomes from deuterostomes
embryonic development of mouth before anus during gastrulation, inability of isolated early embryonic cells to develop into complete embryo, formation of coelom by splitting of blocks of mesodermal cells
123
what are the 2 major subgroups within protostomes
lophotrochozoa and ecdysozoa
124
what animals are in lophotrochozoa
mollusks and annelid worms
125
what animals are in ecdysozoa
nematodes and anthropods
126
describe the water to land transition of protostomes
originated in ocean -> protostomes made transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments -> made transition multiple times as they diversified, most (snails and Anthropoda) survived on land), experience of adaptive radiation (period of rapid speciation)
127
what did water to land transitions give opportunity to for protostomes
transition to land coincided with adaptive radiation of plants on land
128
what did water to land transitions give opportunity to for land plants
thrived in increased availability of sunlight and CO2 on land compared to water, resulted in high net primary productivity of land plants
129
what new adaptations must allow protostomes to make the transition to land
exchange gases, avoid drying out, hold up their bodies under their own weight
130
how have roundworms and earthworms changed to live on land
high surface area to volume ratio, increases efficiency of gas exchange across their body surface in their most environments
131
how have terrestrial arthropods and mollusks changed to live on land
have gills or other respiratory structures located inside the body, minimizes water loss when moving onto land
132
how have insects evolved to live on land
waxy layer to minimize water loss from body surface, if environment dries, openings to respiratory passages can be closed; desiccation resistant eggs evolved repeatedly in populations that made transition to life on land, have thick membranes that keeps in moisture, snail and slug eggs have thick shell that retains water
133
what are compartmentalized body plants
bodies divided into different regions with different functions, needed for evolutionary flexibility
134
what protostomes have compartmentalized body plans
mollusks and arthropods
135
what kind of group are lophotrochozoans
monophyletic
136
what does monophyletic mean
all descendants of common ancestor
137
what are the 2 morphological traits that occur in lophotrochozoans
feeding structure that is used for suspension feeding called a lophophore, a type of larva that swims and may feed called a trochophore
138
what is a trochophore larvae
occurs in animals that undergo indirect development, live in different habitats and eat different foods, originated early evolution of lophotrochozoans which later evolved into different larval types in some groups,
139
what is the spiral pattern of cleavage
synapomorphy, when cells divide at oblique angles that make a spiraling pattern of cells that is unique to lophotrochozoans
140
if an animal belongs to lophotrochozoa, what characteristics do they have
lophophore, trochophore, and spiral cleavage, but not all have all 3 characteristics
141
describe how lophotrochozoans look
long thin tubelike bodies that lack limbs, are worms
142
where is the outside tube skin derived from in lophotrochozoans
ectoderm
143
where is the inside tube gut derived from in lophotrochozoans
endoderm
144
where are muscles and organs derived from in lophotrochozoans
mesoderm
145
what is a flat worm
flattened shape of their bodies, lack coelom and structures for gas exchange and circulation of oxygen and nutrients
146
what is the hypothesis about how the flatworm's flattened body is an adaptation
large surface area for gas exchange, flat body allows nutrients and gases to diffuse efficiently to cells with minimal expenditure in complex internal structures, requires flatworms to live in an aquatic or moist environment
147
what are eye spots for
recognize light patterns
148
do annelids have a digestive tract
fully developed digestive tract with mouth, anus and segmented body
149
what are chaetae
numerous bristle like extensions
150
what are parapodia
extend from lobe like appendages
151
what are characteristics of mollusks
foot - large muscle located at base of animal for movement
visceral mass - region containing main internal organs and external gill
mantle - outgrowth of body wall that covers visceral mass forming enclosure called mantle cavity
152
what is the body plan of mollusks
radula, shell if present, mantle cavity, gill
153
what are the lineages of mollusks
chitons, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods
154
what are chitons
mollusks with dorsal shells made of plates
155
what are bivalves
clams and mussels
156
what are gastropods
slugs and snails
157
what are cephalopods
squid and octopuses
158
what is the muscular foot like in snails and chitons
at base of body, works as hydrostatic skeleton called muscular hydrostat, waves of muscle contractions sweep backward or forward allowing individuals to crawl along surface
159
what is the foot like in bivavles
digging appendage
160
what is the foot like in cephalopods
foot modified to form tentacles for crawling and grasping
161
what is visceral mass
region in all mollusks where organs and surrounding fluids are located, separate from muscular foot
162
what does a coelom do in mollusks
highly reduced in mollusks, functioning mostly in reproduction and excretion of wastes
163
what is a hemocoel
body fluids bathe organs directly in open circulatory system, not lined in mesoderm and has distinct developmental origin
164
what is a radula
rasp and files, moves back and forth over food source so it scrapes material, lost in bivalves
165
what is a mantle
a shell made of calcium carbonate, some mollusk have 1,2, or 8 parts called valves or no shell at all, in bivalves shell is hinged and closes, many marine and terrestrial snails can retract into their shells when they are attacked or when their tissues begin to dry out
166
what functions does the mantle do
in terrestrial snails - makes an internal lung, bivalves - lined with muscle and forms siphons, cephalopods - makes siphon in jet propulsion
167
what is an ecdysozoan
grow intermittently by molting, shedding of the soft cuticle or hard exoskeleton, animals molts so fluid causes body to expand, new larger cuticle or exoskeleton forms
168
what are species in phylum Nematoda called
roundworms or nematodes
169
what are characteristics of roundworms
unsegmented worms with pseudocoelom, tube within a tube, no appendages, elastic cuticle that can be molted, lack specialized systems for exchanging gases and circulating nutrients
170
what do roundworms do in their ecosystems
eat bacterial, fungi, archaea, etc., mouthparts increase efficiency of feeding on particular type of organism or material,
171
what are the 3 key features of arthropods
segmented body organized into tagmata, exoskeleton, joined appendages
172
what are the tagmata of arthropods
grasshopper and insects - head thorax and abdomen; spider or crayfish - cephalothorax and abdomen
173
what is the exoskeleton made of for arthropods
polysaccharide chitin - strengthened by calcium carbonate in crustaceans
174
what do jointed appendages allow for in arthropods
allow for very rapid and precise movement
175
name the functions of a crayfish's legs from antennae to tail
sensory, feeding, defense, walking, swimming
176
what animals first achieved powered fligh
insects
177
how did growing wings help insects
escape predators and search for new food resources
178
how many times did wings evolve
only once
179
how did wings occur
as unjointed extensions of dorsal cuticle on second and third segments of insect thorax, but have been secondarily lost or modified many times
180
what are the 4 lineages of arthropods
myriapods, insects, crustaceans, chelicerates
181
what is complete metamorphosis
look completely different and completely changes
182
how can specialization be an advantage
higher efficiency in feeding and reproduction and thus higher fitness
183
what are the most abundant and most diverse animals
protostomes
184
what is a deuterostomes
second mouth, grouped together because they share important features of embryonic development, gut develops from posterior to anterior, coelom develops form outpockets of mesoderm
185
what are the 3 phyla of deuterostomes
Echinodermata, hemichordata, chordata
186
what are echnioderms
spiny skins, all marine animals, very abundant especially in deepwater environments
187
what are the 3 main traits of echnioderms
radial symmetry in adults, endoskeleton of calcium carbonate, water vascular system and tube feet
188
what is the symmetry in echinoderms
larvae bilaterally symmetric, radially symmetric animals dont have heads, but adults have pentaradial symmetry
189
what is pentaradial symmetry
5 sided radial symmetry
190
what symmetry occurs in deuterostomes
bilateral
191
what is the endoskeleton of echinoderms like
hard protective and supportive structure located inside thin layer of epidermal tissue, forms during development through secretion of calcium carbonate plates inside skin
192
what is a water vascular system
series of branching fluid filled tubes and chambers, sea water flows in and out of system that echinoderms have
193
what are tube feet
important part of water vascular system, elongated fluid filled appendages, each made of ampulla on the inside of the body and tube like podium projecting on the outside
194
how do echinoderms feed
mass feeding on algae or other animals, suspension feeding, deposit feeding
195
what plays a key role for echinoderms to obtain food
tube feet
196
what are the 5 major lineages of echinoderms today that we should focus on
asteroidea, echinoidea, holothuroidea
197
what 4 morphological features should chordates have at some stage in their life cycle
1. openings into throat called pharyngeal gill slits
2. dorsal hollow nerve cord that runs the length of body comprised of projections from neurons
3. stiff and supportive but flexible rod called notochord that runs the length of the body
4. muscular post anal tail
198
what are the 3 major lineages that make up the phylum Chordata
invertebrate chordates
1. cephalochordates
2. urochordates
3. vertebrates
199
what animals are vertebrates
hagfish, lampreys, sharks and rays , bony fishes, amphibians, mammals, and reptiles, and birds
200
what did the dorsal hollow nerve cord turn into
a spinal cord
201
what did pharyngeal pouches turn into
gills in aquatic species but not in terrestrial species
202
does a notochord develop in all vertebrate embryos
yes
203
what helps body support and movement? notochord or vertebral column
notochord
204
how do notochords help organize body plans
by secreting proteins that induce somite formation
205
what are somites
segmented blocks of tissue that later differentiate into vertebrae, ribs, and skeletal muscles
206
what are vertebrates
monophyletic group distinguished by 2 synapormorphies
207
what are the 2 synapomorphies of vertebrates
vertebrae and cranium
208
what is a vertebrae
protects spinal cord, column of cartilaginous or bony structures that form along dorsal side of most species
209
what is the cranium
protects brains and sensory organs, bony, cartilaginous, or fibrous case encloses brain
210
what parts protect the central nervous system and key sensory structures
vertebrae and cranium
211
what is cartilage
strong flexible tissue that consists of scattered cells in gel like matrix of polysaccharides and protein fibers, found throughout the body
212
what is bone
dense tissue of cells and blood vessels encase in matrix of calcium phosphate
213
what are the most species rich and ecologically diverse vertebrates
ray finned fishes and tetrapods
214
what are ray finned fishes
gold fish, tuna, salmon; fins supported by bony rods
215
what are tetrapods
reptiles, amphibians and mammals; large herbivores and predators in terrestrial environments
216
what are the 3 general themes of vertebrate evolution
1. most vertebrates are extinct
2. some traits evolved more than once: convergent evolution has occurred in multiple lineages
3. traits are sometimes lost: evolution is not a progression from simple to complex and is not limited to addition of new traits
217
what are jawed vertebrates
gnathostomes; monophyletic group including 5 major living lineages
218
what animals are gnathostomes
cartilaginous fishes, ray finned fishes, coelacanths, lungfishes, tetrapods
219
what happened after the appearance of jawbones
teeth appeared in fossil record
220
why was the evolution of jaws significant
improved ability of fishes to capture prey and bite, no longer limited to suspension or deposit feeding
221
what are other key traits of gnathostomes
paired fins, internal fertilization
222
how did feeding strategies diversify when jaws originated
ray finned fishes: jaw is protrusible and can be extended to bite food, have second specialized jaw called pharyngeal jaw that consists of modified gill arches
223
what was the major event in evolution of vertebrates
transition to living on land
224
describe the first vertebrates
had limbs and were capable of moving on land date to about 365 mya , first tetrapods, vertebrate animals with 4 limbs
225
what are tetrapods
vertebrate animals with four limbs
226
what major lineages came from the transition from water to land
amphibians, mammals, reptiles
227
what are amphibians
both sides living, first tetrapods to live on land, adults of most feed on land but lay eggs in water, most undergo metamorphosis from aquatic larva to terrestrial or semiterrestrial adult, gas exchange occurs across their moist mucus covered skin
228
what are the first tetrapods that lived on land
amphibians
229
how does gas exchange occur in amphibians
across their most mucus covered skin
230
what animals are in the monophyletic group Amphibia
frogs and toads, salamanders, snake like caecilians
231
what is an amniota
lineage that includes all tetrapods other than amphibians
232
what is an amniotic egg
protective covering that reduces the rate of drying
233
how do reptiles, birds, and few mammals lay eggs
produce an amniotic egg and lay them outside of water
234
what are the 3 inner membranes that surround eggs
embryo (amnion), yolk (yolk sac), waste (allantois)
235
what does albumen do
cushions developing embryo and provides nutrients
236
what do membranes in the egg provide
mechanical support and increase surface area for gas exchange
237
what is an egg surrounded by
shell
238
what are mammals
monophyletic group of amniotes named for mammary glands, which produce milk
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what is the process of milking nourished developing young
lactation
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only vertebrates with what can make suckling possible
cheek muscles and lips
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what are endotherms
inside heated, maintain high body temperatures by oxidizing large amounts of food and generating large amounts of heat, body covered with layers of hair or fur made of keratin
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what are the 3 major lineages of mammals alive today
egg laying monotremes, pouch bearing marsupials, placental (eutherians) which produce placenta within uterus or oviduct during pregnancy
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what is placenta
organ combining maternal and embryonic tissues, rich in blood vessels that facilitate flow of O2 and nutrients from mother to developing embryo and also remove nitrogenous wastes and CO2 from embryo
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what does embryo contribute to
placenta: allantois and chorion; difussion of gases, nutrients and wastes
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what happens to the embryo after gestation
embryo emerges from mothers body
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what are the evolutionary advantages of viviparity and placenta
offspring develop at a more constant favorable temperature, are protected, portable (mothers aren't tied to a nest)
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what are the trade offs of being a mammal
placenta is energetically expensive to produce and bearing live young is energetically costly
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when did the earliest mammals appear
about 195 mya
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when were mammals widespread and ecologically diverse
by 165 mya, when dinosaurs and other reptiles were dominant large herbivores and predators in terrestrial and aquatic environments
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when did most mammal lineages die out
during end of Cretaceous mass extinction about 66 mya
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what process did mammal lineages that survived go through
adaptive radiation; filled ecological roles once dominated by dinosaurs and ocean dwelling extinct reptiles
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what are reptiles
monophyletic group that represents second major living lineage
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what are the 4 major lineages of reptiles
lizards and snakes, turtles, crocodiles and alligators, birds
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what were adaptations for life on land for reptiles.
skin is watertight by a layer of scales made of keratin, breathe air through well developed lungs, lay shelled amniotic eggs, many living reptiles ectotherm (do not use internally generated heat to regulate their body temperature, bask in sunlight, seek shade, and other behaviors to keep body temperature at appropriate level)
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what are urochordates
have external coat of polysaccharide, covers and supports body, 3 major sub lineages: sea squirts, salps, larvaceans
