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BIO 1220 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the 3 branches on the tree of life

A

bacteria and archaea are the 2 largest, 3 major branch is Eukarya

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2
Q

what is a microbiome

A

community of microbes that naturally inhabit a particular area, encompasses all the genetic material contained within in, includes prokaryotes that live on the body

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3
Q

how abundant are bacteria and archaea

A

dominant life forms, marine archae have over 10,000 individuals per mL of seawater, bacteria and archaea living under the ocean may make up 10% of worlds total mass of living material

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4
Q

what are extremophiles

A

live in extreme habitats like hydrothermal vents, ph < 1.0, 0C under antarctic ice, water 5-10 times saltier than seawater

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5
Q

what kind of polymerase is heat resistant to do PCR tests

A

7AC

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6
Q

why are extremophiles a hot area of research

A

origin of life, may help explain how life on Earth began, astrobiologists use extremophiles as model organisms to search for extraterrestrial life; commercial applications - enzymes that function at extreme temperatures and pressures used in industrial processes

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7
Q

what does infectious mean

A

diseases that are spread in 3 main ways,
1. passed from person to person
2. transmitted by bites from insects or animals
3. acquired by ingesting contaminated food or water, or exposure to microbes in surrounding environment

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8
Q

what did koch’s experimental results lead to

A

first test of germ theory of disease, pattern component is that some diseases are infectious and process responsible for pattern is transmission and growth of certain bacteria and viruses

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9
Q

what is virulence

A

ability to cause disease, heritable, variable trait

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10
Q

what are endospores

A

tough, thick walled, dormant structures formed during times of environmental stress

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11
Q

what is bioremediation

A

use of bacteria and archaea to clean up sites polluted with organic solvents, water pollutants are toxic to eukaryotes, don’t dissolve in water, and accumulate in sediments, naturally existing populations of bacteria and archaea can grow in spills and degrade toxins

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12
Q

what are the 2 complementary strategies of bioremediation

A
  1. fertilizing contaminated sites to encourage growth of existing bacteria and archaea
  2. seeding or adding specific species of bacteria and archaea to contaminated sites
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13
Q

how do biologists study bacteria and archaea

A

using enrichment cultures, using metagenomics, investigated human microbiome, molecular phylogenetics

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14
Q

what are enrichment cultures

A

isolate large populations of cells that grow under specific conditions, led to discovery of thermophiles

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15
Q

what is metagenomics sequencing

A

also environmental sequencing, identify species and biochemical pathways by comparing DNA sequences with those of known genes, rapidly identify and characterize organisms never seen, used in combination with direct sequencing (isolating and sequencing a specific gene from organisms found in a particular habitat) to understand prokaryotic diversity

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16
Q

what RNA molecules were found in a small subunit of ribosomes

A

16S and 18S

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17
Q

what is lateral gene transfer

A

allows for acquisition of traits not otherwise available via binary fission (asexual reproduction)

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18
Q

what is transformation

A

when bacteria or archaea naturally take up DNA from environment released by cell lysis or secreted

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19
Q

what is transduction

A

viruses pick up DNA from one prokaryotic cell and transfer it to another cell

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20
Q

what is conjugation

A

genetic information transferred by direct cell to cell contact includes event called plasmid transfer

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21
Q

how is the diversity of bacterial and archaea

A

size - 0.15 num^3 - 200 x 10^6 num^3
shape - filaments, spheres, rods, and chains to spirals
motility - flagella and gliding

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22
Q

what is a gram stain, what does gram positive and negative mean

A

gram stain - dyeing system to examine cell walls
gram positive - positive cells look purples under a microscope cell, well has extensive amount of carbohydrate peptidoglycan
gram negative - looks pink, cell wall has thin layer containing peptidoglycan and outer phospholipid bilayer

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23
Q

all organisms must

A

acquire chemical energy that is used to make ATP, obtain carbon compounds that can serve as building blocks for synthesis of cellular components

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24
Q

bacteria and archaea may use one of three sources of energy for ATP production

A

light, organic molecules, inorganic molecules

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25
Q

phototrophs

A

light used to excite electrons, ATP made by photophosphorylation

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26
Q

chemoorganotrophs

A

oxidize organic molecules with high potential energy, ATP made by cellular respiration or fermentation pathways

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27
Q

chemolithotrophs

A

oxidize inorganic molecules with high potential energy, ATP made by cellular respiration

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28
Q

autotrophs

A

synthesize building block compounds from simple starting materials

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29
Q

heterotrophs

A

absorbing building block compounds from their environmeent

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30
Q

methanotrophs

A

use methane as their carbon source

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31
Q

methanogen

A

produce methane as a by product of cellular respiration

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32
Q

oxygen revolution

A

no free molecular oxygen existed for first 2.3 billion years of earth’s history, cyanobacteria lineage of photosynthetic bacteria, were first to perform oxygenic photosynthesis, were responsible for changing Earth’s atmosphere to one with a high concentration of oxygen, once oxygen is common in oceans, cells carry out aeorbic respiration, before that anaerobic respiration was possible so cells had to use other compounds

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33
Q

nitrogen cycle

A
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34
Q

nitrogen runoff

A
  1. ammonia NH3 is introduced as fertilizer
  2. corn uses some of NH3 to build protein soil dwelling bacteria and archaea use NH3 as an electron donor
  3. nitrate NO3- a byproduct of respiration enters groundwater and washes into rivers
  4. NO3- from runoff stimulates blooms of marine algae and cyanobacteria
  5. when cells that bloomed eventually die, decomposers such as bacteria and archaea grow rapidly, using up oxygen O2
  6. anoxic dead zone
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35
Q

nitrogen fixation

A

molecular nitrogen is abundant but most organisms cant use it directly, must obtain from ammonia or nitrate, nitrogen fixation - certain bacteria and archaea are only organisms capable of converting N2 to NH3, nitrogen fixing bacteria live in close association with plants eg in nodules

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36
Q

virus

A

obligate, intracellular parasite, enters a host cell and uses the host’s machinery to replicate, depend on host cell

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37
Q

virion

A

a virus outside of the host

38
Q

why do we study viruses

A

contribute genetic material to organisms, about 5-8% of human genome is from remnants of viral genomes

39
Q

what is an epidemic

A

disease that rapidly infects many individuals over a widening area

40
Q

pandemic

A

worldwide epidemic,

41
Q

2 categories of viruses

A
  1. enclosed only by a protein shell called a capsid
  2. enclosed by both a capsid and one or more
    phospholipid membranous envelopes
42
Q

what are the 6 phases common to replicative growth of viruses

A
  1. attachment to a host cell and entry into the cytosol
  2. viral genome transcription and viral protein production
  3. viral genome replication
  4. assembly of a new generation of virions
  5. exit from the infected cell
  6. transmission to a new host
43
Q

what are the 3 hypotheses to explain the origin of viruses

A
  1. origin in plasmids and transposable elements
  2. origin in symbiotic bacteria
  3. origin at the origin of life
44
Q

origin of viruses in symbiotic bacteria

A

DNA viruses descend from bacteria that live inside eukaryotic cells bacteria degenerated into viruses and slowly lost genes needed to synthesize ribosomes, ATP, nucleotides, amino acids and other compounds

45
Q

origin of viruses at the origin of life

A

viruses descended from the first RNA based life forms on Earth, evolving since life began, several proteins expressed in viruses not expressed in any known cell, gene coding come from RNA world pool of genes instead of a cell

46
Q

origin of viruses in plasmid and transposable elements

A

simple viruses are escaped gene sets, mobile genetic elements from genes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes, escaped genes encode information needed to replicated themselves and include information on how to make a capsid

47
Q

emerging disease

A

new illnesses that suddenly affect significant numbers of individuals in a host population

48
Q

emerging viruses

A

causative agents for emerging diseases

49
Q

virus strain

A

populations that have similar characteristics

50
Q

a virus outbreak is indicated by certain factors

A

patients have identical and unusual disease symptoms, in same geographic area, and affected over a short period of time

51
Q

physicians report the cases to the officials that ______

A

identify the agent that caused the disease and the origin

52
Q

what fundamental features of eukaryotes distinguish them from bacteria and archaea

A

most are large, have more organelles, and more extensive cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope, multicellularity evolved multiple times, asexual and sexual reproduction

53
Q

protists environment

A

open ocean, shallow coastal waters, intertidal habitats

54
Q

endosymbiosis theory

A

mitochondria originated when a bacterial cell took up residence inside another cell about 2 billion years ago

55
Q

leading hypothesis for the origination of the nuclear envelope

A

infoldings of the plasma membrane

56
Q

what is the purpose for presence and nature of structures

A

provide support and protection

57
Q

multicellularity

A

refers to organisms with more than one cell

58
Q

how doo pseudopodia eat

A

engulf it

59
Q

how do ciliary currents eat

A

sweep food into gullet

60
Q

viridiplantae

A

green plants, consist of green algae (freshwater) and land plants (terrestrial) both photosynthesizers

61
Q

why do we study green algae along with land plants

A
  1. closest living relatives to land plants
  2. transition from aquatic to terrestrial life occurred when land plants evolved from green algage
62
Q

what were the first organisms that could thrive with tissues completely exposed to the air

A

land plants

63
Q

before land plants evolved, terrestrial life was limited to what

A

bacteria, archaea, and protists

64
Q

ecosystem services

A

ex: produce oxygen, build soil, hold soil, hold water in soil, moderate climate

65
Q

how are land plants the primary producers in terrestrial ecosystems

A

convert energy in sunlight into chemical energy, sugars made support all other organisms

66
Q

how are land plants key to the carbon cycle

A

take CO2 from the atmosphere and reduce it to make sugars, fix much more CO2 than they release

67
Q

how do biologists understand diversification

A

compare morphological traits, analyze the fossil record, estimate phylogenetic trees

68
Q

with the morphological traits, green algae include species that are

A

unicellular, colonial, or multicellular; live in marine, freshwater, or moist terrestrial habitats

69
Q

vast majority of green algae are

A

aquatic

70
Q

vast majority of land plants are

A

terrestrial

71
Q

nonvascular plants

A

lack vascular tissue - specialized groups of cells that conduct water or dissolved nutrients throughout the plant body, use spores not seeds for reproduction and dispersal (moss)

72
Q

seedless vascular plants

A

have well developed vascular tissue, does not make seeds, uses sprores for reproduction (ferns)

73
Q

seed plants

A

have vascular tissue, make seeds that consist of an embryo and a store of nutritive tissue surrounded by a tough protective layer, include angiosperms (encased seeds) or flowering plants and gymnosperms (naked seeds)

74
Q

5 major events in diversification of land plants

A
  1. origin of land plants (first evidence of land plants, cuticle, spores, sporangia)
  2. silurian-Devonian explosion (most major morphological innovations, stomata, vascular tissue, roots leaves)
  3. Carboniferous:club mosses and horsetails abundant (extensive coal forming swamps)
  4. gymnosperms abundant (both wet and dry environments blanketed with green plants for the first time)
  5. angiosperms abundant (diversification of flowering plants)
75
Q

cuticle

A

waxy material that is a watertight barrier that coats the above ground parts of plants and helps prevent drying

76
Q

sporopollen

A

waxy substance that surrounds spore and pollen and helps prevent drying

77
Q

the phylogenetic tree of green plants show that

A

green and land plants are monophyletic, nonvascular plants are paraphyletic

78
Q

natural selection favored early land plants with 3 main adaptations that solved the drying problem by

A
  1. preventing water loss, which kept cells from drying out and drying
  2. provide protection from harmful UV radiation
  3. move water from tissues with direct access to water to tissues without direct access
79
Q

stomata

A

have pores that allow gas exchange

80
Q

flavonoids

A

pigment that protects DNA from UV damage

81
Q

tracheids

A

thickened lignin contained secondary cell wall in addition to a cellulose based primary cell wall, pits in the sides and ends of the cell which lets water flow efficiently

82
Q

vessel elements

A

shorter and wider than tracheids

83
Q

innovations for plant reproduction in dry environment

A
  1. spores that resist drying because they are encased in a tough coat of sporopollen
  2. gametes that were produced in complex multicellular structures
  3. embryos that were retained on and nourished by the plant parent
84
Q

gametophyte

A

multicellular haploid phase

85
Q

sporophyte

A

multicellular diploid phase

86
Q

gametophyte dominant

A

in nonvascular plants, sporophyte is small and short lives and is largely dependent on gametophyte for nutrition

87
Q

sporophyte dominant

A

ferns and other vascular plants, sporophyte is larger and longer lived

88
Q

microsporangia

A

microspores (pollen) that develop into male gametophytes, which produce small gametes called sperm

89
Q

megasporangia

A

produce megaspores that develop into female gametophytes, which produce large gametes called eggs

90
Q

pollen grain

A

allow plants living in dry habitats to reproduce efficiently

91
Q

seed

A

structure that includes embryo and store of nutrients provided by mother

BIO 1220 (6 decks)

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