Exam 2 Study Guide Flashcards
What is memory?
Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
What is encoding?
Creating a sort of code so that we can store the information later
What is storage?
The process of storing memories for later
What is retrieval ?
Getting information out of your memory when it is needed
What was Ebbinghaus’s study?
What did Frederic Bartlett think about memory studies?
That studies of memory should use familiar material
What did Frederic Bartlett use for his studies?
Used folk stories
What were Bartletts major findings?
People would remember the overall theme of the story but they would normally omit specific details
What is gist information?
Basic ideas or main points of a piece of discourse
What is verbatim information?
exact wording
What did Ebbinghaus discover in regard to list length?
Longer the list the more repetitions he had to do
What did Ebbinghaus discover in regard to savings?
rapid mastery of material that has been previously learned
What did Ebbinghaus discover in regard to overlearning?
additional study of already mastered material improves performance in delayed test
What is phonological store?
the passive sire component of the phonological loop that holds onto verbal information
What is an articulatory loop?
the part of the phonological loop involved in the active refreshing of information in the phonological store
What is the visual spatial sketch pad?
subsystem responsible for the storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information
What is the evidence for the visual spatial sketch pad?
mental rotation tasks
What are mental rotation tasks?
the findings that people take longer to make their judgements as the angular rotation increased
What is an episodic buffer?
the portion of working memory whereby information from different modalities and source s are bound together to form new episodic memories
What do episodic buffers organize?
information from the phonological and visuo-spatial subsystems with information from across the subsystems
What is central executive?
mechanism responsible for accessing the attentional needs to the different subsystems and furnishing attentional resources to those systems
What are the problems with Baddeley’s memory model?
Forgetting, episodic buffer, central executive, and competitive relation
What is the phonological loop responsible for?
recycling information through rehearsal
What are two state models?
What is the embedded process view?
immediate memory represents the momentary and temporary activation of information in long-term memory
Who did the embedded process view?
Cowan
Who did the 3 state model?
Oberaurer
What are the three states in the three state model?
activated portion of long term memory
region of direct access
focus of attention
What is decay?
Information that we don’t use that fades over time
What is very hard to demonstrate in regard to memory/
decay
What is interference?
the thing that we forget that has not really disappeared from our head
information currently being processed is negatively influenced by the presentation of other information
What is the model of interference given to us in class?
Old information –> new information (Proactive Interference)
Old information <– New Information (Retroactive Interference)
o P comes before in the Alphabet (to remember the order)
what is the displacement view?
the new item “bumps” out a previously stored item
What is the overwriting view?
the new item overrides a previously stored item
What is the thing according to unitary views?
items in immediate memory blur into one another and become hard to separate during retrieval
What is mind watering?
a situation in which a persons attention and thought wander from the primary task to some other line of thought
What are examples of mind wandering
Past events
Future plans
15-50% in mind wandering
What is executive attention?
the process whereby we strategically control our attention in response to situational demands
What is executive control?
mechanism that sets goals and priorities, choose strategies, and controls the sequence of cognitive processes
Can you practice multitasking to enhance executive function?
Nope
What must you do to enhance executive functioning?
you must give your executive function a break when you use it to much as it gets tired
What are good methods to enhance executive function ?
exposure to nature and mindfulness meditation
What is declarative memory?
long term memory knowledge that can be retrieved and then reflected on consciously
What is episodic memory?
-Events we have experienced
-Memory for personally experienced events
-Recollective experience at retrieval
-Vulnerable to forgetting
What does episodic memory often include?
affective (emotional) components
What are semantic memories?
Knowledge or information about the world that does not include contextual elements
Is there recollective experience at retrieval for semantic memories?
No
Is there an event for semantic memories?
No, but they are memories for knowledge
Why are we more likely to forget semantic memories?
because we have a lot more semantic memories than episodic memories
What type of memory is resistant to forgetting?
Semantic
Is there an affective (emotional) component for semantic memories?
Nope
what are procedural memories?
Nonconscious form of memory, such as priming and the learning of skills and habits
What are explicit memory tests?
Tests require that the person consciously recollect some specific event from the past
What is free recall?
Recall what you remember
What is cued recall?
tests that give you some hints to remember information
What is recognition?
even though you are having to remember things you just have to go with familiarity not from scratch
What are the three parts of explicit memory tests?
free recall
cued recall
recognition
What are implicit memory tests?
successful performance does not depend on conscious recollection of some specific event or episode from the past
What is a word fragment completion task?
we present participants with a list of words then you ask them to go do something else, then you go there and give them a word completion task (series of words that are missing letters)
What normally happens in a word fragment completion task?
the word is able to be completed in more than one way
What is the word stem completion task?
has to finish the end of the word
What is priming?
using stimuli to help someone recognize or process other stimuli in the future
What are the elements of the implicit memory tests?
Word fragment completion tasks
Word stem completion tasks
Priming
What are retrospective memory tests?
Memory test that involves remembering information from the past
What are prospective memory tests?
Memory test that involves remembering to perform an action in the future
What are basic processes in long term memory?>
Factors that influence encoding in long-term memory
What is the spacing effect?
the advantage of distributed repetitions over massed repetitions
What is massed practice?
rehearsal occurs in one long session
What is distributed practice?
rehearsal is spread out across multiple, shorter occasions
What is the type of rehearsal important for?
determining whether or not information is stored in long-term memory
What is maintenance rehearsal>
a rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory merely by being repeated over and over
What is elaborative rehearsal
the formation of links between material to be remembered and information already in memory
What are the levels of processing?
information receives some amount of mental processing, information that is processed to a deep level will be better remembered than information processed to a shallow level
Who did the levels of processing?
Craik and Lockhart in 1972
what is the self-reference effect?
the finding that memory is better for information that you relate to yourself in someway
What were the details in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
brought participants to a lab and presented them with a list of objectives that could be attributed to people, there were 40 objectives they showed participants
What was condition 1 (structural condition) in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
they had to say whether the word was in big letters or not in big letters
what was the manipulation in condition 1 of the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
adjective was either presented in the same size type as the question or twice as large
What was condition 2 (phonemic) in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
rhymes with another word
What was the manipulation in condition 2 of the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
XXXX was a word that either rhymed or did not rhyme with the adjective
What was condition 3 (semantic) in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
means the same as YYYY
what was the manipulation for condition 3 in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
YYYY was either a synonym or unrelated word to the presented adjective
What was condition 4 (self-reference) in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
deeper level (describes you)
What was the manipulation of condition 4 in the study done by Rogers, Kuiper and Kicker?
subjects simply responded yes or no to Indicate the self-reference quality of the presented adjective
What is survival processing?
if people bring a survival perspective to bear on what they are learning, it can improve performance
what was the study done by Nairne, Thompson, and Pandeirada
- List of 30 words
-Stranded in grasslands of a foreign land and you will need to find things to survive and rank how relevant for the survival situation it would be
-Survival condition, moving condition, classic condition
- Moving Condition: processing at a deep level
- Classic condition: shallow processing
What is organization?
the tendency to impose some form of grouping or clustering on information being stored in or retrieved from memory
what is distinctiveness?
the hypothesis that the more distinctive the item, the easier it is to recall
What is the von restorff effect?
if one item in a set is different from the others than it will be more likely to be recalled
What was the study done by Bousfield?
60 words participants were presented with
names of animals, personal names, names of vegetables, or professions (all mixed up)
What is the enactment effect?
the finding of improved memory for participant-performed tasks, relative to those that are not acted out
What is the generation effect?
the finding that information someone generates or creates is better remembered than information read or heard
What was the study done by Slamecka and Graf
One group re-group was just given the pair of words, the generate group was given a pair of words to remember but one of the words they were given was incomplete and they had to generate it
Remembered less than the people that had to generate the words cause they had to generate the words before memorizing them
What is transfer-appropriate processing?
according to this view, no encoding task is inherently better than another, memory is no good to the extent that encoding processes are appropriate for the retrieval taskWhat
What is the testing effect?
the finding that testing oneself produces far better memory than simply reading and re-reading material
What with the testing affect did Roediger and Karpike do:
SSSS –> study study study study
STTT –> Study test test test
what is autobiographical memory?
memory of specific, personal experiences that comprise a person’s life story
what are autobiographical episodes>
part of the system that includes mental representations of past events
What is autobiographical knowledge?
the general knowledge we have about our own life and self
What is childhood amnesia (infantile amnesia)?
inability to recall events from one’s life that occurred before the ages of 3 or 4
Is childhood amnesia limited to episodic memory?
yes
what is the time frame with childhood amnesia for the ages in developing memories?
o Before age 4: few or no memories
o Ages 5-7: steadily increase in memories
o After Age 7: steady increase in memories
What are the encoding problems associated with childhood amnesia?
o Immaturity of the developing brain
o Lack of sophisticated language ability
o No established sense of self
o No consciousness about the past
o Inability to bind components of an event into a meaningful whole
What are the retrieval problems with childhood amnesia?
– Memories that we encoded in a non-symbolic way cannot be retrieved after language develops
– Mismatch between the sense of self at early age and later on
What is the encoding component with childhood amnesia>
poor quality of component
what is the retrieval component of childhood amnesia?
children forget information quickly compared to adults
What are the complementary process views of childhood amnesia?
encoding and retrieval
can early autobiographical memories be retrieved and what is the catch?
yes, but not many are available for retrieval
what is the reminiscence bump ?
superior memory that would otherwise be expected for life events between the ages of 15 and 25
what is the cognitive account?
many events experienced during this period are very distinctive (e.g. first time)
what is the cognitive abilities account?
events at this period are well encoded because cognitive abilities are at their peak
what is the identity formation account
events at this period help define our personal identity making them salient and important
what is the life script account?
a “shared” schema about important life events guides the retrieval of life events
what is the life story account?
events are remembered because they represent important life changes and transitions
what is forgetting .
there is a standard forgetting curve after the reminiscence bump
what are the accounts of forgetting?
lack of rehearsal
interference
routine events that don’t stand out
what are involuntary autobiographical memories?
come unbidden, often on response to some environmental cue (e.g. odor)
What do involuntary autobiographical memories often involve?
remembering a specific event
what is self-function?
help us maintain a sense of who we are, even in the face of a changing sense of self
what is social function?
allow us to emotionally connect with others
what is directive function
personal recollections can serve as life lessons, helping to direct our lives
what are flashbulb memories
memories of extraordinary clarity, typically for some highly emotional event that is retained despite the passage of many years
is there usually a strong emotional component with flashbulb memories?
yes
is there a lot of debate that flashbulb memories are different from other episodic memories?
yes
are flashbulb memories open to reconstruction (error)?
yes
What is the elements of the chart involving involuntary?
tend to be for specific events
specific events : rapid retrieval (1 to 2 seconds)
What are the elements in the voluntary side of the chart?
tend to be for general evetns
general events: slow retrieval (10 seconds)
what are the similarities between voluntary and involuntary?
process seems to be the same
process is reconstructive in nature
what is different between voluntary and involuntary?
the way reconstruction happens seems to be different
what is the context dependency effect?
phenomenon that memories are easier to recall when the retrieval context is the same as the original learning context
what is state dependent learning?
information is best recalled when the subject is in the same mental and physical state as when they originally learned it
what is the word length effect?
working memory span is negatively related to the length of encoded items
what is the phonological similarity effect?
memory is poorer when people need to remember a set of words that are phonologically similar, compared to a set of words that are phonologically dissimilar
what is the articulatory suppression effect?
people have poorer memory for a set of words if they are asked to say something while trying to remember the words
what is the irrelevant speech effect?
recall of a list of items is impaired by the presence of irrelevant background speechw
what is the modal model?
the model of memory and how we process the world around us
includes a short-term memory and a long-term memory and provides details on how information is encoded and later retrieved from memory
what is sensory input?
taking in and processing information through the five senses of sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing, as well as other senses like balance, movement, and body awareness
what is sensory memory?
short-term storage of information from the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell
what is short term memory?
ability to temporarily retain information for a short period of time, usually a few seconds to 30 seconds
what is long term memory?
ability to store and retrieve information over a long period of time
what is the phonological loop?
part of working memory that stores and processes auditory and verbal
what is the function of the phonological loop?
hold verbal information for a short time so it can be converted into long-term memory
what is phonological store?
holds words that are heard in sound form
what is articulatory store?
Allows words to be repeated in a loop. This process uses inner speech, or offline speech planning processes, to maintain the information.
what is the importance of the phonological loop?
thought to be important for learning language, especially in children.
what is baddeley’s memory model?
a multi-component model that describes how humans temporarily store and manipulate information
what are limits in duration?
how long a memory can be held before it’s forgotten
what are limits in capacity?
constraints in our ability to maintain and process information held in the short term that affect long-term understanding and retention
What was Ebbinghaus’s study?
Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, tested his own memory by learning lists of nonsense syllables and then recording how well he could recall them over time. He used the scientific method, keeping careful notes of his observations and data.
