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Anatomy Exam 1 > Exam 2 Anatomy > Flashcards

Exam 2 Anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

The volume of blood expelled by each ventricle per minute

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2
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

Stroke volume + heart rate

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3
Q

What are the primary factors affecting stroke volume?

A

The volume in the blood before contraction “Preload”
The pressure in the arteries of the vents needs to overcome “Afterload”

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4
Q

What factors other than preload and afterload affect stroke volume?

A

Increase blood calcium

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5
Q

What factors affect heart rate?

A

Parasympathetic nervous system - Heart rate down
Sympathetic nervous system - Heart rate up
Emotions - Angry up Sad down
Body temp - Increase temp increase heart rate
Hormones and chemicals in the blood

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6
Q

How does thyroid hormone affect heart rate

A

It increases heart rate

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7
Q

How do potassium levels affect heart rate?

A

Increasing potassium levels depolarizes the plasma membrane making contraction easier to occur. Decreasing those levels does the opposite

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8
Q

What is cardiomyopathy?

A

Irreversible damage to the heart which is replaced by scar tissue. The scar tissue stretches because of high pressure in the heart. This dilates the ventricles

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9
Q

What are the main causes to cardiomyopathy?

A

1.) atherosclerosis
2.) alcoholism

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10
Q

How is cardiomyopathy treated?

A

Medication - increases the contraction strength of the heart
Heart transplant
Ventricular assistive devices - right and left
Ventricular restoration - reshaping the heart
Cellular cardiomyoplasty - using stem cells to repair the heart
Laser therapy - holes in the heart that create new vessels
Enhanced External Counterpulsation - Pumps blood back up to the heart to heavily reoxygenate
ECMO (extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation) - similar to vent assist where oxygenation occurs completely externally

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11
Q

What are the three layers of arteries and veins?

A

The tunica interna/intima
Tunica media
Tunica externa

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12
Q

What layer are the smooth muscles located in in vessels?

A

the tunica media

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13
Q

What innervates smooth muscle in vessels?

A

The sympathetic nervous system

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14
Q

What is the tunica interna made of?

A

Simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) and a thin basement membrane of connective tissue

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15
Q

What is the blood-filled area of all vessels called?

A

The lumen

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16
Q

What is the tunica externa made of?

A

Dense connective tissue which provides support and protection

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17
Q

What are the three types of arteries?

A

Elastic (conducting) arteries
Muscular arteries
Arterioles

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18
Q

What is the significance of elastic (conducting) arteries?

A

They can stretch more because the tunica media has less smooth muscle tissue and more elastic connective tissue. This is important because it prevents blood pressure from rapidly changing with each heart beat.

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19
Q

What is the significance of muscular arteries?

A

The tunica media has less elastic CT and more smooth muscle. This allows them to regulate blood flow to different body regions

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20
Q

What is the significance of arterioles?

A

They are the smallest arteries that branch off into capillary beds. They have both endothelium and smooth muscle fibers.

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21
Q

What is the function of a precapillary sphincter?

A

They contract or relax to control blood flow to regions. This allows them to give oxygenated blood to the regions that need them.

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22
Q

What is a capillary?

A

The smallest vessel

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23
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A

Continuous capillaries
Fenestrated capillaries
Discontinuous capillaries (sinusoids)

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24
Q

What is a continuous capillary?

A

A capillary with very little gaps so nothing can pass through the capillary walls

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25
Q

What is a fenestrated capillary?

A

A capillary with small openings in walls which allow small things to pass through (except cells and large proteins)

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26
Q

What is a discontinuous capillary?

A

A capillary with very large openings that everything can pass through. They allow blood out of/in to the blood stream from places like the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

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27
Q

What are the two types of veins?

A

Venules
Medium and large veins

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28
Q

What are venules?

A

Veins on the other end of capillary beds from arterioles made of endothelium and a small amount of smooth muscle

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29
Q

What is the vaso vasorum?

A

A capillary network that supplies cells of the tunica media and the tunica externa.

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30
Q

What are medium and large veins?

A

They are veins duh. They have valves to prevent backflow. They are made of endothelium and more smooth muscles.

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31
Q

How does simulation stimulation affect smooth muscle?

A

It causes constriction

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32
Q

What are venous sinuses?

A

Thin-walled veins that hold deoxygenated blood, like on the heart. They are more like bowls of deoxygenated blood and have no smooth muscle.

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33
Q

What are portal veins?

A

Veins that take blood from one place to another without going back to the heart. The hepatic portal vein goes from the stomach to the liver to break down nutrients.

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34
Q

How does skeletal muscle aid in returning blood to the heart?

A

It squeeze increasing pressure on the vein and pushing the blood towards the heart

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35
Q

How does pressure change from breathing aid in returning blood to the heart?

A

As you breathe in pressure in the chest decreases (with expansion), this causes the diaphragm to increase in pressure and push blood up to heart.

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36
Q

What is an anastomoses?

A

A union of 2 or more vessels the provides an alternate route in case of blockage

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37
Q

What are the three types of anastomoses?

A

Arterial anastomoses
Venous anastomoses
Arterio-venous anastomoses

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38
Q

How are anastomoses named?

A

After the combination of what each end of the connection is.
Arterial is artery-artery
Venous is vein-vein
Arterio-venous is artery-vein

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39
Q

What causes an aneurysm?

A

Atherosclerosis
High BP
Trauma
Infection
Congenital

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40
Q

Where are aneurysms most common

A

Abdominal aorta
renal arteries
Cerebroarterial circle

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41
Q

What are the risk factors for varicose veins?

A

Women
Genetic predisposition
Pregnant
Obese
Standing a lot

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42
Q

What are the factors affecting blood pressure/flow

A

Cardiac output = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume
Vessel diameter
Blood volume
Viscosity
Vessel length

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43
Q

How does the autonomic nervous system affect blood pressure

A

Sympathetic stimulation decreases smooth muscle diameter increasing blood pressure.

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44
Q

What does the baroreceptor reflex do?

A

Uses the ANS to change heart rate and vessel diameter in order to control blood pressure

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45
Q

What does a baroreceptor do?

A

Monitors blood pressure

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46
Q

Where are barorecptors located?

A

Right atrium - Returning pressure
Aorta - Max pressure
Carotid artery - Protect the brain

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47
Q

How does the chemoreceptor reflex work?

A

It monitors O2 levels via pH levels sending info to the medulla from the aortic and carotid bodies. In low O2 environments there is a high amount of CO2 and a low pH the chemoreceptor identifies this and increases heart rate increasing cardiac output

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48
Q

How does Oxygen affect pH

A

High oxygen - Higher pH
Low Oxygen - Lower pH

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49
Q

What are the three short term vasoconstrictors?

A

Endothelin
Angiotensin II
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

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50
Q

What’s the difference between Epinephrine/Norepinephrine as a vasoconstrictor vs its common use?

A

It is commonly a NT but as a vasoconstrictor it travels in the bloodstream acting as a hormone.

51
Q

How do vasoconstrictors affect BP?

A

They increase it

52
Q

Where does Epinephrine/Norepinephrine come from?

A

The adrenal glands

53
Q

How is angiotensin made?

A

Renin + Angiotensinogen -> Angiotensin I -> Angiotensin I + Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (in lung capillaries) -> Angiotensin II

54
Q

What does angiotensin II cause the adrenal glands to make?

A

Aldosterone

55
Q

What affects does aldosterone do?

A

It causes sodium reuptake from urine in the kidneys which increases blood pressure by increasing solutes -> increasing water -> increasing blood volume

56
Q

What is special about endothelin?

A

It is secreted from blood vessels and causes local contraction of smooth muscle increasing BP

57
Q

What are the three short term vasodilators?

A

Inflammatory chemicals
Nitric Oxide
Alcohol

58
Q

How does alcohol cause vasodilation?

A

It suppresses the vasomotor center in the medulla which decreases symp signaling to blood vessels

59
Q

What are the four long-term regulators of blood pressure?

A

Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
Aldosterone
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
Fluid Shift

60
Q

How does anti-diuretic hormone affect blood pressure?

A

It increases blood pressure

61
Q

Where anti-diuretic hormone come from?

A

The pituitary gland in response to low blood pressure

62
Q

How does anti-diuretic hormone work?

A

It prevents you from peeing meaning you hold more fluid and increase your blood volume

63
Q

What inhibits anti-diuretic hormone?

A

Alcohol

64
Q

How does aldosterone affect BP?

A

It increases blood pressure

65
Q

How does aldosterone work?

A

It causes sodium reuptake which causes increased blood volume by increasing the amount of water in blood because there are more solutes

66
Q

How does atrial natriuretic hormone affect blood pressure?

A

It decreases blood pressure

67
Q

Where does atrial natriuretic hormone come from?

A

From the right atrium in response to high blood pressure

68
Q

How does atrial natriuretic hormone work?

A

It is the opposite of aldosterone. It causes more sodium to be released in urine.

69
Q

What is fluid shift?

A

The exchange of fluid between blood and interstitium

70
Q

How does fluid shift regulate B/P?

A

In cases of high blood pressure water gets pushed into the interstitium and causes edema. Water getting pushed out of blood decreases blood volume

71
Q

What is bulk flow?

A

The process with which fluid with small solutes leaves the capillary at the arteriole end and returns at the venule end?

72
Q

What percentage of fluid goes to lymph during bulk flow?

A

10% enters lymph 90% returns to the venous end of the capillary

73
Q

How is blood osmotic pressure maintained?

A

Because it is determined by proteins that aren’t able to leave the lumen because they are too big

74
Q

What are the too causes of edema?

A

Blood pressure so high too much fluid is lost
Blood osmotic pressure is low because the number of plasma proteins - usually caused by kidney problems that cause you to lose plasma proteins in urine

75
Q

What causes elephantiasis?

A

Lymphatic vessels getting blocked by roundworms which are introduced by mosquitoes

76
Q

How is elephantiasis treated?

A

With meds that kill the roundworms and surgery to remove the edematous tissue

77
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

Heart-Body-Heart

78
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

Heart-lungs-heart

79
Q

What is hepatic portal circulation

A

Heart-stomach-hepatic portal vein-liver-hepatic veins-inferior vena cava- heart

80
Q

What is special about fetal circulation?

A

It bypasses the lungs

81
Q

What is the flap between the left and right atrium that allows the lungs to be bypassed?

A

The foramen ovale

82
Q

What is the space between the inferior vena cava and aorta that allows blood to bypass the lungs?

A

Ductus arteriosus

83
Q

Does most blood go to the heart or through the ductus arteriosus?

A

the ductus arteriosus circulates the most blood

84
Q

Why cant blood go to the lungs in fetal circulation?

A

The lungs aren’t expanding and contracting and the vessels that lead to the lungs are constricted preventing blood from entering.

85
Q

What is the structure of the umbilical cord?

A

It is one large vein and two smaller arteries surrounded by a thick jelly (Wharton’s jelly) and surrounded by connective tissue

86
Q

What is special about arteries and veins in the umbilical cord?

A

They are reversed. Umbilical arteries return wastes and carbon dioxide from the baby to the mom and the umbilical vein gives oxygen, nutrients, and hormones from mom to baby.

87
Q

How does the umbilical vein enter the body?

A

It branches in two at the liver with one branch connecting the hepatic portal vein and another called the ductus venosus carrying the majority of the blood to the rest of the body.

88
Q

What is SUA?

A

Single Umbilical Artery

89
Q

What are risk factors of SUA?

A

Mom smokes
Baby has a chromosomal disorder
Multiple birth pregnancy (twins or triplets)

90
Q

What is the problem with a baby missing an umbilical artery?

A

It increases the risk of:
Intrauterine growth restriction
preterm birth
still birth
25% of babies have some internal abnormality (typically in the genitals)

91
Q

How is adult circulation started?

A

The umbilical cord is cut - the kid breathes - the lungs expand - the vessels to the lungs dilate - blood reaches the lungs - blood returns to the heart from the lungs to the left atrium - increased pressure in the LA - foramen ovale closes and seals over becoming the fossa ovalis

92
Q

What is the fossa ovalis?

A

The foramen ovale after closing

93
Q

What do the umbilical arteries turn into after birth?

A

The median umblical ligaments

94
Q

What does the umbilical vein turn into after birth?

A

The round ligament (under the liver)

95
Q

What does the ductus venosus do after birth?

A

It becomes the ligamentum arteriosum because of the pressure changes.

96
Q

What is patent ductus arteriosus?

A

1/500 babies the ductus arteriosus doesn’t close

97
Q

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

A

Absorb excess interstitial fluid and return it to the blood
Removes proteins, tissue, and debris from interstitial space
Lymphatic capillaries are more permeable than blood capillaries
Absorbs fat from the digestive system
Fights infection

98
Q

What is lymph?

A

Interstitial fluid that has entered lymphatic vessels

99
Q

What does a lymphatic vessel do?

A

Transports lymph and returns it to blood

100
Q

What are lymphatic tissues and organs?

A

Places where lymphocytes originate, mature, or reside after maturation

101
Q

Do lymphatic capillaries have a basement membrane?

A

No

102
Q

How are lymphatic capillaries held in place?

A

Anchoring filaments

103
Q

What is the lymphatic capillaries’ nickname?

A

Drainage pipes

104
Q

What are the two lymphatic ducts called?

A

Right Lymphatic Duct
Thoracic Duct

105
Q

Where does the right lymphatic duct return lymph to?

A

the right subclavian vein

106
Q

Where does the thoracic duct return lymph to?

A

The left subclavian vein

107
Q

How does lymph return to the blood?

A

Continuous backpressure is created by constantly created lymph and skeletal muscle contraction with the valves in the vessels

108
Q

What are the two primary lymphatic organs?

A

Red bone marrow
The Thymus Gland

109
Q

What happens in the thymus gland

A

T cells mature
Signals are released for immature t cells to migrate

110
Q

What happens in the Red Bone Marrow?

A

B and T cells originate
B cells mature

111
Q

Wat does it mean for a B or T cell to be mature?

A

That they are
Immunocompetent - can identify a single antigen
Self tolerant - don’t destroy self cells

112
Q

What are the three secondary lymphatic organs?

A

Lymph nodes
Spleen
Mucosal associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

113
Q

What do lymph nodes do?

A

They filter lymph

114
Q

What is the spleen?

A

A giant lymph node that filters blood

115
Q

Where is your spleen?

A

Left upper quadrant

116
Q

What is a splenectomy?

A

Removal of the spleen comes with an increased risk of infection and septicemia

117
Q

What are the four mucosal associated lymphatic tissue?

A

Tonsils and adenoids
Appendix
Peyer’s patches
Scattered in other mucous

118
Q

What is innate immunity?

A

It doesn’t change over time and has the same response to each antigen every time

119
Q

What is adaptive immunity?

A

Immunity that develops over time, reacting stronger and faster, responds to individual antigens

120
Q

What is the difference between MHC 1 and MHC 2

A

MHC 1 is on all body cells
MHC 2 is on antigen-presenting cells like macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells

121
Q

What is a cytokine?

A

A cellular communication signal

122
Q

What does a macrophage do when encountering a non-self cell?

A

It phagocytizes the cell
Calls for reinforcements by releasing the cytokine interleukin 1
Then it performs antigen-presenting (taking a picture)

123
Q
A

Anatomy Exam 1 (6 decks)

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