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Human Anatomy > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of a skeleton

A 
Support
Protection
Movement
Electrolyte balance
Acid-base balance
Blood formation
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2
Q

Osseous tissue

A

Connective tissue

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3
Q

Necrosis

A

Bone death

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4
Q

Shapes of bone

A

Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones

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5
Q

Long bones

A

Arms and legs
Longer than wide
Produce leverage for movement

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6
Q

Short bone

A

Bones in ankle

Usually function by supporting and gliding

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7
Q

Flat bones

A

Cranium and ribs

Protection, attachment site for muscles

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8
Q

Irregular bones

A

Some skull bones

Don’t fit into another category

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9
Q

Bone features

A

Epiphysis and diaphysis

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10
Q

Epiphysis and diaphysis

A

Separate in children (growing bone) by the epiphyseal plate (cartilage)

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11
Q

Anatomy of a flat bone

A

Usually limited marrow
Larger area of spongy bone
Makes sense with its function

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12
Q

Osteogenic cells

A

Stem cells, found in the endosteum

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13
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Bone-forming cells

Synthesize bone matrix

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14
Q

Osteocytes

A

Trapped former osteoblasts
Reside in lacunae and communicate with other cells via gap junction, resort bone matrix, deposit bone matrix, contribute to calcium-phosphate levels in blood and bone density, strain sensors in bone remodeling

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15
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Bone-dissolving cells, different origin than other bone cells, fusion of stem cells

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16
Q

The matrix

A
  • 1/3 organic matter- (glyco-) synthesized by osteoblasts; collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, glycoproteins
  • 2/3 inorganic matter- mostly hydroxyapatite; calcium carbonate; magnesium, sodium, potassium, fluoride, sulfate, carbonate, hydroxide
  • contaminants- many mineral contaminants can concentrate in bone; heavy metals (usually not harmful in the bone because they kill your kidneys first); radioactive metals can cause problems; examples: uranium (found in the drinking water in NE NV), radium
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17
Q

Physical properties of bone matrix

A

-Is a composite material(like wood, fiberglass sports equipment)
-Strong, but brittle(ceramic component, mineral)
-flexible, but weak (polymer, collagen, protein/fly an component)
Wood has to be flexible lignin and brittle/strong cellulose fibers

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18
Q

Bone development

A
  • Ossification- formation of bone
  • Growth (long bone and flat bone)- elongation, widening and thickening
  • remodeling- 10% of bone is recycled per year in a process called remodeling
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19
Q

Intramembraneous ossification

A

Formation of flat bones- within a fibrous sheet

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20
Q

Endochondral ossification (long bone usually)

A

-development in pre-existing hyaline cartilage

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21
Q

Bone elongation

A
  • child’s hand
  • epiphyseal plates- when they disappear, it becomes a line
  • disappear when growth stops
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22
Q

Epiphyseal plate

A

Zones of growth

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23
Q

Bone widening and thickening

A
  • similar to intramembraneous ossification
  • osteoblasts deposit matrix on the inner surface of the periosteum
  • they then get trapped (osteocytes)
  • produces circumferential lamellae
  • marrow cavity widens- osteoclasts of the endosteum
  • bone grows by creating more bone in the inside
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24
Q

Bone remodeling

A
  • bone continually remodeled
  • collaboration of osteoclasts(resorb bone and breaks it down) and osteoblasts(lay down bone matrix)
  • bone mass is greater in athletes and manual laborers
  • osteoclasts respond to electrical charges that come from strain on hydroxyapatite
  • if it is out of balance- several different pathologies such as osteoporosis
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25
Q

Bone physiology

A

Deposition, resorption, calcium and phosphate homeostasis

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26
Q

Physiological of osseous tissue

A
  • is influenced by and influences the rest of the body- principle organ for storing calcium and phosphate
  • mineral deposition
  • mineral resorption
  • calcium and phosphate homeostasis- hormonal control
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27
Q

Mineral deposition

A
  • osteoblasts lay down collagen fibers in a helical pattern along the length of the osteon
  • this is where our discussion of equilibrium comes in
  • this is inhibited in most tissues, not in osseous tissue
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28
Q

Eptopic calcification

A

Getting calcification where you don’t want it

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29
Q

Eptopic ossification

A
  • if the inhibition disappears ossification can happen in the wrong tissues (lungs, brain, eyes, muscles, tendons, arteries, etc)
  • this is what happens in arteriosclerosis
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30
Q

Mineral resorption

A
  • free minerals from the bone and makes then available in the blood
  • carried out by osteoclasts
  • H+ pumps in the membranes of osteoclasts cause a locally acidic environment that dissolves bone
  • acid phosphates (an enzyme) dissolved the collagen- works under highly acidic conditions
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31
Q

Calcium homeostasis

A
  • acts as a cellular second messenger, cofactors on many enzymes, neurons, muscle contraction, blood clotting, exocytosis
  • maintained at 9.2-10.4 mg/dL (narrow range)
  • deficiency in blood called hypocalcemia- symptoms: CNS depression, muscle weakness, sluggish reflexes, cardiac arrest
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32
Q

Phosphate homeostasis

A
  • component in many biological molecules (DNA, RNA, phospholipids), acid-base balance
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33
Q

Hormonal control of calcium balance

A
  • calcitriol
  • calcitonin
  • parathyroid hormone
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34
Q

Calcitriol

A
  • A form of vitamin D, server also positive effects on blood Ca
  • synthesis and effects- UV light breaks the bond
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35
Q

Calcitonin

A
  • thyroid gland hormone, served all negative (lowering) effects on blood Ca
  • osteoclasts inhibition
  • osteoblasts stimulation- increases bone deposition
  • plays an important role in children
  • osteoclasts are highly active in children
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36
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A
  • several positive effects on blood Ca

- negative feedback loop

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37
Q

Bone disorders

A
  • fractures and repair

- other disorders such as osteoporosis

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38
Q

Types of fractures

A 
Open, displaced
Greenstick 
Comminuted
Linear
Transverse, nondisplaced 
Oblique, nondisplaced
Spiral
Colles
Pott
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39
Q

Hematoma formation

A

The hematoma is converted to granulation tissue by invasion of cells and blood capillaries

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40
Q

Soft callus formation

A

Deposition of collagen and fibrocartilage converts granulation tissue to a soft callus

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41
Q

Hard callus formation

A

Osteoblasts deposit a temporary bony collar around the fracture to unite the broken pieces while ossification occurs

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42
Q

Bone remodeling

A

Small bone fragments are removed by osteoclasts, while osteoblasts deposit spongy bone and then convert it to compact bone

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43
Q

Rickets

A

Defective mineralization of bone in children, usually as a result of insufficient sunlight or vitamin D, sometimes due to a dietary deficiency of calcium or phosphate, or to liver or kidney diseases that interfere with calcitriol synthesis. Causes bone softening and deformity, especially in weight-bearing bones of the lower limbs

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44
Q

Osteomalcia

A

Adult form of rickets, most common in poorly nourished women who have had multiple pregnancies. Bone become softened, deformed, and more susceptible to fractures

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45
Q

Osteoporosis

A

Loss of bone mass, especially spongy bone, usually as a result of lack of exercise or deficiency of estrogen after menopause. It results in increasing brittleness and susceptibility to fractures.
Too much bone is being dissolved by osteoclasts.
Treatable with medication (fosamax)- directly inhibits the activity of osteoclasts.

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46
Q

Osteitis deformans (paget disease)

A

Excessive proliferation of osteoclasts and resorption of excess bone, with osteoblasts attempting to compensate by depositing extra bone. This results in rapid, disorderly bone remodeling and weak, deformed bones. Osteitis deformans usually passes unnoticed, but in some cases it causes pain, disfigurement, and fractures. It is most common in males over the age of 50.

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47
Q

Osteomyelitis

A

Inflammation of osseous tissue and bone marrow as a result of bacterial infection. This disease was often fatal before the discovery of antibiotics and is still very difficult to treat.

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48
Q

Osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease)

A

A defect in collagen deposition that renders bones exceptionally brittle, resulting in fractures present at birth or occurring with extraordinary frequency during childhood; also causing tooth deformity, and hearing loss due to deformity of middle-ear bones

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49
Q

Osteoma

A

A benign bone tumor, especially in the flat bones of the skull; may grow into orbits or sinuses.

50
Q

Osteochondroma

A

A benign tumor of bone and cartilage; often forms spurs at the ends of long bones

51
Q

Osteosarcoma (osteogenic sarcoma)

A

The most common and deadly form of bone cancer. It occurs most often in the tibia, femur, and humerus of males between the ages of 10 and 25. In 10% of cases, it megastores to the lungs or other organs; if untreated, death occurs within 1 year.

52
Q

Chondrosarcoma

A

A slow-growing cancer of hyaline cartilage, most common in middle age. It requires surgical removal; chemotherapy is ineffective.

53
Q

Axial skeleton

A

Central supporting axis of the body

54
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

Lints, pectorals, and pelvic griddles

55
Q

The skull of a child and the fontanels

A
  • due to our huge heads we are born less developed than other mammals
  • the bones of a newborn skulls are not fused
  • allows for flexibility during birth
56
Q

Fontanels

A

Spaces between infused cranial bones, filled with fibrous membrane

57
Q

Abnormalities of the fontanels

A
  • palpating tests performed by obstetric nurses
  • cranial bones may override each other or there may be indications of damage in the newborn skull from an especially difficult delivery
  • hydrocephalus (excess cerebral spinal fluid) may cause the fontanels to be especially large
  • bulging fontanels indicate abnormally high intracranial pressure
58
Q

Functions of the vertebral column

A
  • supports the skull and trunk
  • protects the spinal cord
  • absorbs compression stresses from movement like walking
  • attachment of the limbs, thoracic cage, postural muscles
  • consists of vertebrae and intervertebral discs
59
Q

Scoliosis

A

Sometimes from poor development of a body and arch on one side of a vertebra

60
Q

Kyphosis

A

Caused usually by osteoporosis, or other disorders, seen also in boys who lift weights or wrestle too much and too early

61
Q

Lordosis

A

Similar causes to kyphosis, also from extra weight of pregnancy

62
Q

Vertebrae and herniated disc

A
  • gelatinous cartilage surrounded by fibrocartilage
  • the intervertebral disc absorbs all the shock in the spinal column
  • excessive force (often with fake ire) can cause a tear or crack in the anulus
  • this allows the nucleus pulposus to extrude and put pressure on nerves or the spinal cord.
63
Q

The pelvis and lower limb differences between males and females

A

Males: pelvic inlet is narrow, and pubic arch is 90 degrees
Females: pelvic inlet is wider, and the pubic arch is 120 degrees

64
Q

Skeletal adaptation for bipedalism

A
  • humans are the only mammals that spend most of the time upright on our back legs
  • require adaptation of feet, legs, spine, and skull
65
Q

Foot

A
  • springy arch
  • tarsal bones are tightly articulated- stronger and bigger
  • calcaneous more developed- strength and speed because of the larger calcaneous
  • great toe is non-opposable and developed for pushing off
  • ape foot doesn’t have an arch
  • arch is flexible because of cartilage and absorbs shock
  • medical implications- humans are more likely to have foot problems that apes because of only walking on two feet
66
Q

Knee

A

Angled inward so the weight is over the joints and not out to the side
Lockable so we can stand for long periods of time

67
Q

Pelvic shape

A

Our pelvis supports the abdominal viscera

Our pelvic outlet is narrow and this makes childbirth very difficult

68
Q

Gluteal muscles

A

In apes the legs move laterally. This makes them have a rocking motion kind of like ice skating
In humans the muscles pull back at the end of a stride
Other muscles shift the weight from one leg to another when walking

69
Q

Curvature of the spine

A

The body’s center of gravity is significantly shifted to the rear. The legs hold us up while apes arms hold them up
Keeps us from getting fatigued (weight over our legs keep us fatiguing)

70
Q

Skull

A

Balanced on the vertebral column at the fulcrum point

One reason for the very large supraorbital ridge in apes is to hold the head up and the muscles attach to it

71
Q

Bony joints

A

Completely ossified bone

Found in the first rib to sternum in elderly, some bones of the skull(not sutures), sutures in elderly

72
Q

Fibrous joints

A

Also called synarthrosis- adjacent bones joined by collagen fiber
Teeth, sutures, tibia-fibula, radius-ulna

73
Q

Cartilaginous joints

A

Also called amphora this is- two bones linked by cartilage

Ribs, pubis, vertebrae

74
Q

Synovial joints

A

Two bones separated by a film of lubricating synovial fluid

Most of the things you think of as joints in your body

75
Q

Suture

A

Two bones connected by fibrous tissue

76
Q

Gomphysis

A

Teeth

77
Q

Syndesmosis

A

Looser fiber to allow movement

78
Q

Serrated suture

A

(Serrate- scissor or teeth) hold together because it increases the surface area. It also creates things that are impossible to pull apart. Kitchen cabinets have dovetail joints (interlocking joints)

79
Q

Lap suture

A

They are overlapping. Increasing the surface area of contact. Allows more collagen fibers

80
Q

Plane suture

A

Weakest suture.m- just had collagen holding things together.

81
Q

Synochondrosis

A

Joined by hyaline cartilage

Epiphysis, diaphysis, first rib attachment to sternum

82
Q

Symphysis

A

Joined by fibrous cartilage

Pubic symphysis, joint between vertebrae

83
Q

Synovial joints- general anatomy

A

Lubricated by synovial fluid
Synovial fluid is a protein
Joint cavity had the synovial fluid
Synovial membrane halos keep the fluid in

84
Q

Bursea

A

Muscles and tendons are sometimes lubricated by bursa (fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid)
Keeps tendons from getting inflamed

85
Q

Bursitis

A

Inflammation of the bursea

86
Q

Exercise and articulate cartilage

A

Warming up thins the synovial fluid it is then able to penetrate articulate cartilage
Articulate cartilage is essentially non-vascular but it contains living cells
Synovial fluid flowing in and out of cartilage can nourish the cells and carry away wastes

87
Q

Lever systems

A

First class- how your head is held up
Second class- how a wheel borrow works. Jaw opening
Third class- paddling a paddle board. The point is speed

88
Q

Abduction

A

Away from the body

89
Q

Ball and socket

A

Shoulder and hip

90
Q

Condylomata (ellipsis) joints

A

Oval convex joint surface

Metacarpal joints

91
Q

Saddle joints

A

Both bones have a saddle-shaped surface

Trapezio-metacarpal joint

92
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis

A

An autoimmune disease where the synovial membranes are attacked by an antibody
New treatments are immunosuppressive- can allow infections and cancer

93
Q

Arthoplasty

A

Like a knee replacement

94
Q

Knee joint and ligament-injuries

A

Hinged synovial joint
Ligaments connect bone to bone
Common injuries- PCL, ACL, MCL, LCL, and Meniscus

95
Q

Arthristis

A

Broad term embracing more than 100 types of joint rheumatism

96
Q

Dislocation

A

Displacement of a bone from its normal position at a joint, usually accompanied by a sprain of the adjoining connective tissues. Most common at the fibers, thumb, shoulder, and knee

97
Q

Gout

A

A hereditary disease, most common in men, in which Utica acid crystals accumulate in the joints and irritate the articulate cartilage and synovial membrane. Causes gouty arthritis, with swelling, pain, tissue degeneration, and sometimes fusion of the joint. Most commonly affects the great toe

98
Q

Rheumatism

A

Broad term for any pain in the supportive and locotory organs of the body, including bones, ligaments, tendons, and muscles.

99
Q

Sprain

A

Torn ligament or tendon, sometimes with damage to a meniscus or other cartilage

100
Q

Strain

A

Painful overstretching of a tendon or muscle without serious tissue damage. Often results from inadequate warmup before exercising

101
Q

Synovitis

A

Inflammation of a joint capsule, often as a complication of a sprain

102
Q

Tendinitis

A

A form of bursitis in which a tendon sheath is inflamed

103
Q

Condyle

A

A rounded knob that articulated with another bone

104
Q

Facet

A

A smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface

105
Q

Head

A

The prominent expanded end of a bone, sometimes rounded

106
Q

Crest

A

A narrow ridge

107
Q

Epicondyle

A

A projection superior to a condyle

108
Q

Line

A

A slightly raised, elongated ridge

109
Q

Process

A

Any bone prominence

110
Q

Protuberance

A

A bony outgrowth or protruding part

111
Q

Spine

A

A sharp, slender, or narrow process

112
Q

Trochanter

A

Two massive processes unique to the femur

113
Q

Tubercle

A

A small, rounded process

114
Q

Tuberosity

A

A rough elevated surface

115
Q

Alveolus

A

A pit or socket

116
Q

Fossa

A

A shallow, broad, or elongated basin

117
Q

Fovea

A

A small pit

118
Q

Sulcus

A

A groove for a tendon, nerve, or blood vessel

119
Q

Canal

A

A tubular passage or tunnel in a bone

120
Q

Fissure

A

A slit through a bone

121
Q

Foremen

A

A hole through a bone, usually round

122
Q

Meatus

A

An opening into a canal

Human Anatomy (6 decks)

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