Exam 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of form
Physiology
The study of function
Organ system
Group of organs with a unique collective function
We have 11
Organ
2 or more tissues
Carries out a particular function
Tissue
Similar cells and ell products, part of an organ, carries out a particular function
Situs solitus
Normal
Situs inversus
Inverted organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities, sometimes incomplete
Dextrocardia
Right-left reversal of the heart
Situs perversus
When a single organ is out of place
Homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively stable conditions
Your body maintains conditions close to a set point no matter what the outside conditions are
A living system that is at equilibrium with its environment is actually dead
Evolution
Genetic change from generation to generation
Dynamic equilibrium
Balanced change
Negative feedback
A change away from the set point is sensed
Mechanisms are activated that negate or reverse the change
Examples: vasodilation and sweating to cool the body and vasoconstriction to help warm the body
Receptor
Senses the change
Integrating center
Examines the input information and makes a decision
Effector
Carries out the response
Positive feedback loop
Self amplifying because the effector causes more of the stimulus
Ventral
Towards the front or belly
Dorsal
Towards the back or spine
Anterior
Towards the ventral side
Posterior
Towards the dorsal side
Superior
Above
Inferior
Below
Medial
Towards the median plane
Lateral
Away from the median plane
Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment or origin
Distal
Farther from the point of attachment or origin
Superficial
Closer to the body surface
Deep
Farther from the body surface
Pleural cavities
Lungs
Pericardial cavity
Heart
Abdominal cavity
Digestive organs, spleen, kidneys
Pelvic cavity
Bladder, rectum, reproductive organs
Viscus
Body organ
Solvent
The liquid medium something is dissolved in
Solute
The “something” dissolved in the solvent
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of dissolved solute and solution
Osmosis
Water solutions on two sides of a membrane try to move either solvent or solute to even put the concentration of water and solute
Chemical equilibrium
A working definition
A reaction or physical process will tend to go in a particular direction
A reaction or physical process will tend to only go so far
Where it goes is inherent to the chemicals involved and conditions (temperature, pressure)
The amount of situation A relative to situation B
Metabolism
The sum of chemical reactions taking place in the body; some of them build up complicated molecules to build our bodies; some of them break down complicated molecules for energy
Anabolism
The reactions that build up molecules in the body; energy is used to make complicated molecules; the energy is stored in newly made molecules
Catabolism
The reactions that break down complicated molecules in order to get energy
Carbohydrates
Sugars (can be broken down in catabolic reactions for energy)
Hydrophilic
Monosaccharide- monomer
Disaccharide- two monosaccharides (fructose+glucose= sucrose)
Polysaccharide- polymer of monosaccharides
Lipids
Fats
This is a functional definition for almost everything in the body that is not soluble in water
They are all hydrophobic
Proteins
Enzymes
Amino acid- the monomer of a protein
Dipeptide- two amino acids put together
Peptide, polypeptide, or protein- a polymer of many (usually different) amino acids
Glycogen
A typical polysaccharide Polyglucose Branched The body’s storage form of glucose The individual glucose monomers can be broken off (catabolism) and out back on (anabolism)
Triglycerides
This is a form of lipid that is used for energy storage
Cis and trans bonds and health
Protein structure
Important for the function of a protein
If a protein does not “fold” correctly it can cause disease (Alzheimer’s and Mad Cow)
Proteins carry out almost all the reactions in the body (enzymes)
A chiral molecule
You can switch this at the carbon
Carbon bound to 4 different things is special this way
Called chirality- very common in biological molecules
Molecule man demonstration
Cell sizes
- Some cells grow and eventually divide
- They need to divide because there is a limit to the size a cell can grow
- Limited by surface area to volume ratio
- Diameter, surface area, and volume
- do a calculation
Cell structure
Cell parts
ICF (intracellular fluid,cytosol)
ECF(extracellular fluid)
Cell structure is important for human physiology
Membrane lipids
The membrane is like a solution The solvent is made of membrane lipids Phospholipids (75%) - hydrophilic heads - hydrophobic tails -forms a bilayer Cholesterol (20%) - hydrophilic head chain - hydrophobic tail (the rings) - controls membrane fluidity Glycolipids (5%) - simulate to a phospholipid but have a carb chain attached to the cell out surface side - helps to form the carb-based glucocalyx
Transmembrane proteins
Span the membrane and move laterally in it
Hydrophobic in the membrane, hydrophilic on the surfaces
Many have carb groups (glycoproteins)
Some are anchored in the cytoskeleton
Receptors
Binds a molecule on the cell surface and relays the message that the molecule carries to the inside of the cell
Specific for one molecule, often specific for one type of cell
Enzymes
Helps carry out chemical reactions that happened on, above, or below the cell surface
Carriers
Transfer a solute from one side of the membrane to the other, uses energy
Cell-identity markers
Glycoproteins on cell surface that work as an ID card to tell other cell what type of cell it is. Differentiates host from foreign, viral infected, or cancer cells
Cell-adhesion molecules
Glycoproteins that make cells stick to other cells in a tissue
Second messengers
Example: epinephrine binding to a liver cell Receptor G-protein Adenylate Cyclades cAMP Kinases Enzymes
An inhibitor of the phosphodiesterade
Caffeine
Blocks step 7
Prolonged release of glucose
The glycocalyx
Carbs of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and the intercellular matrix
Chemically unique in everyone
ID tag for cells and tissues
Cell adhesion
Histology
The study of tissues
Four primary tissues
Epithelial- organ surfaces
Connective- support or protection
Nervous- transmission of coded information
Muscular- elongated, excited cells for contraction
Ectoderm
Outer layer, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system
Endoderm
The inner layer, gives rise to mucous membranes of the digestive and respiratory tracts and to the digestive glands
Mesoderm
A layer of more loosely organized cells between the two layers, gives rise to medenchyne, becomes muscle, bone, and blood
Interpreting tissue sections
How sections are made
- preserved in fixative that makes them stiff and prevents decay
- sometimes they are embedded in plastic, wax, or are frozen
- cut into histology all sections one or two cell layers thick for clarity
- mounted on slides with permanent glass or plastic coverings
- depending on the tissue and process used, at some point they are stained
Epithelial tissue
Flat sheets of closely packed cells Bound to a basement membrane - not a lipid membrane - collagen, laminin, fibronectin, heparin sulfate Categories- simple, stratified Shapes we have seen before
Connective tissue
Mostly fibers and ground substance
Functions: binding of organs(ligaments, fats, fibers), support(bones, cartilage), physical protection(cranium, ribs, fat), immune protection (immune cells), movement (bones and cartilage), storage (fat, calcium in bone), heat production (brown fat), and transport (blood)
Intercellular junctions
Keep cells together - stiff - flexible - tight junctions act a seal Allow for communication -gap junctions
Glands
Secret a substance- usually into the bloodstream, also skin surface, or into intestine
Endo- internal
Exo- external, including intestinal lumen
Most have epithelial tissue
- usually cuboidal is part of it
Mucous membranes
Lines passages that open to the external environment
Consists of two to three layers
- epithelium
- laminate propria- areolar connective tissue
- muscular is mucosal- smooth muscle layer
Absorptive, secretory, and protective functions
Covered with mucus
Tissue growth
Tissues grow during different stages of development and during repair
Hyperplasia
Growth due to cell multiplication
Hypertrophy
Growth due to cell enlargement, preexisting cells
Neoplasia
Development of a tumor (neoplasm), usually contains non-functional cells
Regeneration
When an injured part or group of cells is replaced by the same cells, restores function
Fibrosis
Replacement of damaged tissue by scar tissue, mainly collagen, produced by fibroblasts
