exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
organelles
A
organelles are defined as specialized structures that are separated from the rest of the cell by a phospholipid bilayer. have a more complex and well-developed subcellular architecture.
2
Q
nucleus
A
5 microns in diameter providing genetic information to the cell (mainly nuclear chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. site of all gene expression
3
Q
nucleolus contains
A
active group of genes that encode and transcribe ribosomal RNA (the RNA component of ribosomes)
4
Q
additional genetic information is also found
A
within mitochondria and chloroplasts)
5
Q
Ribosomes
A
structures made of ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins and are the sites of protein synthesis in cells. NOT considered organelle (not enclosed in membrane) made of large and small component
6
Q
Protein synthesis
A
mRNA travels from genetic material in nucleus to ribosome to tell it what to do…
7
Q
Ribosomes in pro or eu?
A
Ribosomes are found in all cell types – both prokaryote and eukaryote. However, eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes differ from each other enough that many of the antibiotics we use disrupt prokaryotic ribosomes but not eukaryotic ribosomes. Thus antibiotics kill bacterial cells but do not damage our cells.
8
Q
endomembrane system
A
Protein production and modification usually takes place in a network of membrane-bound chambers called
9
Q
endoplasmic reticulum
A
“network within the cytoplasm.”protein synthesis and modification begin here- 2 types (smooth and rough)
10
Q
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A
major role in synthesizing lipids and in degrading toxins.
11
Q
rough endoplasmic reticulum
A
rough endoplasmic reticulum houses ribosomes on its surface, which is where many of the proteins targeted for export outside the cell are synthesized.
12
Q
signal sequence
A
directs sorting of proteins in cell
13
Q
translational complex
A
ribosome with an associated mRNA molecule
14
Q
N-terminus
A
end that is synthesized first
15
Q
signal recognition particle
A
binds to growing peptide with certain sequence at N terminus, facilitates association with rough ER
16
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
processes proteins ,where carbohydrates are added to proteins
17
Q
glycosylation.
A
where carbohydrates are added to proteins
18
Q
cis face
A
side of the Golgi apparatus where proteins enter is re
19
Q
trans face
A
shipping! where the transport vesicles “bud” out
20
Q
secretory vesicle.
A
final transport vesicle that buds from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus. Secretory vesicles bind and fuse with the internal face of the plasma membrane by interacting with specific membrane protein
21
Q
Hydrolases also known as hydrolytic enzymes
A
) are a general category of enzymes that have the ability to hydrolyze (decompose by reacting with water) various substrates.
22
Q
Gangliosides
A
class of modified lipids that contain carbohydrates. prominent component of neuronal tissue, comprising about 6% of the total lipid content of the brain.
23
Q
Hexosaminidase A
A
lysosomal enzyme that breaks down gangliosides. so they don’t accumulate ( control and breakdown)
24
Q
Tay - Sachs disease.
A
homozygous recessive for allele that doesn’t create Hexosaminidase A- results in loss of motor skills beginning between three and six months of age with progressive evidence of neurodegeneration, including seizures, blindness, and eventual death, usually before four years of age, found often in Ashkenazi Jewish descent from founder effect
25
cytoskeleton is made up of three major components
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules: support system and moves things around in cell
26
microfilaments
smallest cytoskeletal fibers made of polymerized subunits of the globular protein actin (like beads on a string) Microfilaments play a critical role in cell motility, where they facilitate cellular migration or, as in the case of muscle cells, contraction.
27
intermediate filaments
are somewhat larger than microfilaments, yet smaller than microtubules. Intermediate filaments are made of fibrous proteins wrapped around one another to form a thick, cable-like structure, supporting cell structures and anchoring organelles in the correct position within the cell. relatively static
28
Microtubules
largest cytoskeletal (we discuss) hollow tubes consisting of rows of paired tubulin molecules. Microtubules are important to major cellular events such as mitosis and meiosis and they also have a major structural role within the cell.
29
cancer drugs
target cytoskeletal b/c of importance in cell division, which is rapid in cancerous cells, unfortunately cytoskeletons are involved in healthy cells as well so these drugs harm all cells
30
Taxol
used to treat cancer (breast and lung) targeting tubulin and disrupting the mitotic spindle. This causes mistakes in chromosome segregation and cell division and eventually kills the cell
31
lysosome
Lysosomes are involved in breaking down materials in the cell. when vesicles bud off of the plasma membrane, bringing contents from outside the cell into the cytoplasm, they first fuse with lysosomes
32
hydrolytic enzymes
enzymes that hydrolyze/breakdown molecules- break down stuff in vesicles ONLY within lysosomes, become activated when they reach lysosome (inactive until then)
33
Mitochondria
converting the energy in food molecules into energy in the form of ATP, abundant in most eukaryotes (one or more per cell depending on how much energy is needed *think muscles need thousands*
Mitochondria are enclosed in a double membrane; a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane that is contorted into a complex of infoldings called cristae. posses their own genetic material
34
ATP
high energy molecule that provides the energy for many cellular reactions
35
cristae (in mitochondria)
Cristae provide extensive surface areas for processes such as the electron transport chain, which takes place within the inner membrane This membrane typically contains thousands of copies of electron transport chain proteins. The space within the cristae is the mitochondrial matrix.
36
mitochondria contain circular DNA
Mitochondria and their genetic material are maternally inherited in sexually reproducing organisms. (The sperm mitochondria rarely enter the egg during fertilization.) Therefore, mitochondria are passed to offspring in the cytoplasm of ova. Hence, your mitochondria are virtually identical to your mother- maternally inherited diseases of consequence
37
Chloroplasts
double membrane-bound organelles found in plants and algae that are the sites of photosynthesis. The green color of chloroplasts comes from the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll, chloroplasts have their own circular DNA molecule
38
endosymbiosis
one organism began living within the body of another.
39
endosymbiotic theory
mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from prokaryotes that inhabited the cells of other larger prokaryotes. A relatively large prokaryote (a protoeukaryote)engulfed a smaller prokaryote (a protomitochondrion) accounts for inner membrane of mitochondria and outer mem. ++ (safe environment for respiration for ATP etc)
40
ancestors to the modern cells that possess both mitochondria and chloroplasts,
at some point in the past, underwent a serial endosymbiosis (sequential endosymbiotic events).
41
extant
currently existing
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paraphyletic
descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, but not including all the descendant groups.
43
polyphyetic
members of groups are different protist lineages,
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protozoa
animal like
45
Euglenozoa Kingdom
monophyletic, flagellum made of tubulin w/ unique rod structure. heterotrophs, such as Trypanosoma, and autotrophs, such as Euglena. This kingdom can be divided into two groups
46
Alveolata Kingdom (aveolata)
coral reefs, algal blooms and fish poisoning, cause malaria. recognizable by alveoli. 3 groups: dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates
47
```
Stramenopila Kingdom
(Straminopiles)
```
diverse, monophyletic group. The group includes: planktonic diatoms, small single-celled or colonial freshwater protists (golden algae), large multicellular marine seaweeds (brown algae), and water molds. hair-like projections on their flagella
48
Chlorophyta Kingdom
green algae-more closely related to plants than are the other photosynthetic protists. The chlorophylls found in green algae (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) are the same as those found in plants. Green algae also store fixed carbon as starch and they have cell walls composed of cellulose. plants may have arisen from a common ancestor (paraphyletic group) LICHENS and marine seaweeds, freshwater algae 7,000 orgs. reproduce asexually and sexually
49
termites
community of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. produce cellulase in stomach of termite to break down wood and paper, hydrolyses cellulose to glucose which turns into ethanol
50
2 groups of euglenozoa
Euglena and its relatives euglenoids (photosynthetic) kinetoplastids, which includes Trypanosoma and its relatives, all of whom have one large mitochondrion and an organelle called a kinetoplast, which stores extranuclear DNA. All kinetoplastids live in symbiosis with host organisms, and a number of them are pathogenic
51
african sleeping sickness
aka African trypanosomiasis
caused by euglenozoans from the genus Trypanosomaransmitted transferred between mammalian hosts by the tsetse fly. attacks central nervous system: fatigue and confusion result can be fatal, treatable - prevent with ITNs or sterile insect technique
52
Chagas disease
American trypanosomiasis, transmitted by "kissing bugs" chronic infection that causes acute symptoms (e.g., gastrointestinal discomfort and heart enlargement or other cardiac problems) between 10 and 20 years after infection.- Darwin?. prevent with ITNs or sterile insect technique
53
alveoli
small cavities enclosed in membranes that hug the internal cell surface
54
dinoflagellates in symbiosis
Some of these heterotrophs exploit chloroplasts from photosynthetic protists, becoming autotrophic themselves for a time. Some dinoflagellates live in symbiosis with different species, as parasites in some cases and as mutualists in others. symbiotic relationship with reef-building cnidarians ( zooxanthellae are engulfed not eaten- speeds up reefbuilding, loss of them cause bleaching!)
55
dinoflagellates: Noctiluca
bioluminescence because of luciferin
56
Burglar Alarm theory
the bioluminescent glow attracts predators of dinoflagellate predators and this allows the glowing protist to escape predation.
57
exoskeletons
secreted calcium carbonate shells
58
"harmful algal blooms" (HABs)
red tide events (also yellow/orange/brown) elease toxins into the water, killing many aquatic animals during major algal blooms and poisoning others with sublethal doses of toxins. ex. Florida red tide (Karenia brevisneurotoxic brevetoxins into the surrounding water that are then aerosolized, 54% of population inland had breathing infections) filter feeders susceptible, enrichment of oceans and estuarine waters from fertilizer runoff has created an aquatic environment that favors dinoflagellate blooms
59
plankton
minute animal and plant life in the ocean
60
Pfiesteria red tides
, is unusual in that it uses toxins specifically to kill fish, stunning them and then feeding on their tissues (or on other protists that thrive on decaying fish
61
Apicomplexans
parasites, specialized for living and reproducing within the tissues of animals
62
apical complex
cluster of microtubules and organelles located in the apex of cells that are in the infectious stage
63
Plasmodium
causes malaria in humans and other animals, is an apicomplexan transmitted by mosquitoes
64
Apicomplexans
parasites, specialized for living and reproducing within the tissues of animals aka sporozoites
65
Kingdom Rhodophyta
the red algae
66
Kingdom Amoebozoa
slime molds
67
water molds
responsible for potato blight
68
Diatoms (Stramenopila)
important part of carbon cycle, encased in a glass-like silica shell, lined with perforations to allow gas exchange at the cell surface. stay afloat by regulating cellular ion concentrations, 2 components of shell fall and form sediment after death. mostly photosynthetic, some heterotrophic. can be used to tell climate conditions in dating methods
69
Diatomaceous earth
sediment, consists of microscopic fragments of glass from these silica shells, has numerous applications. ex., it is commonly used as a pesticide; the sharp edges of diatom shells scrape arthropod exoskeletons and gut linings, causing water loss and eventually death by desiccation. It also damages the tissues of worms and other small creatures, incorporated into animal feed to reduce the occurrence of intestinal parasites. also filters and scrubbing sol'ns
70
Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden Algae) (Stramenopila) chrysophytes
planktonic, mainly freshwater organisms that are golden in color due to specific pigments. These different pigments allow them to expand the range of light wavelengths they can use during photosynthesis. Many golden algae are predators (as well as being photoautotrophic) can make golden tides, form colonies or be unicellular (colonies Synura)
71
pseudopodia (on chrysophytes)
cytoplasmic "feet" used to prey on smaller orgs. silica also coats the quiescent cysts that form under unfavorable conditions, allowing chrysophytes to remain dormant for decades.
72
convergent evolution,
process by which unrelated organisms that occupy similar environments evolve similar functional traits ex. , oomycetes and fungi are decomposers so maximizing their surface area for the absorption of food= +; thus, the filamentous growth form would have been favored by selection, evolved independently in both lineages.
73
Oomycetes responsible for
almost wiping out french wine in late 1800s from Plasmopara from American grape root stock. lime and Cu SO4 used to treat. Phytophthora infestans, or potato blight: secretes enzymes that break down leaf and stem tissue which kills plants rapidly. Tubers can become infested, turning soft and black
74
Phaeophytes (Stramenopila)
brown algae: large (>100 ft!!) ex. KELP (deeper waters) forests and Kombu (eaten by Japanese) other seaweed
75
thallus
entire body of any seaweed that is plant-like in appearance 3 parts: stipe, holdfast, blades
76
stipe
like stem of plants;
77
holdfast
secures the seaweed to a substrate;
78
blades
provide extensive surface area for photosynthesis, much as leaves do for plants
79
viruses
protein-enclosed particles that contain their own genetic material (either DNA or RNA) but can’t reproduce outside of a host cell (obligate parasites) infect only certain cells (ex. rhinoviruses only infect respiratory cells) MANY in the sea (˜10ˆ7)
80
Chaetoceros salsugineumnuclear inclusion virus (CsNIV)) that infects Chaetoceros salsugineum, a species of diatom. abundant in plankton communities
known to contribute to global atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide levels and are a major source of nutrition for organisms higher on the food chain. Several species of Chaetoceros are known to parasitize fish by clogging their gills
81
Kingdom Rhodophyta
do not have flagellated cells at any point in their life cycles. DNA sequence data (and other sources) indicate that this lineage arose independently, sometime before Kingdom Stramenopila.
82
rhodophytes
marine algae, but also freshwater some in terrestrial niches. rhodophytes are characterized by accessory pigments in their chloroplasts, which endow them with unique colors. In the case of rhodophytes, also called red algae, pigments called phycobilins produce rich shades of pink, scarlet, and red that are so deep that they approach black. seaweed used in sushi (nori) is red algae
83
color of rhodophytes
photosynthesize at water depths that only high-energy blue and green light can penetrate. color of rhodophyte species tends to be correlated with the depth where they commonly occur; deep-water species are often nearly black whereas shallow-water species can contain so few accessory pigments that they appear almost green, having few pigments to mask the green color of chlorophyll.
84
Spirogyra chlorophyta
long filaments of cells that can break apart and divide to produce new individuals. Alternatively, bridges can form between different individuals, allowing the exchange of gametes.
85
Kingdom ameobozoa
Amoebozoa is characterized by the presence of pseudopodia that are used for locomotion and feeding
86
Myxomycetes
plasmodial slime molds, yellow orange pink. unicellular bags of cytoplasm! within each cell are many nuclei... useful for study of mitosis
87
cytoplasmic streaming
the circular flow of cytoplasm that aids in moving materials within the cell
88
Acrasiomycetes
cellular slime molds, most of life is ameoba like, when resources are scarce they converge, joining with other cells to form units that have coordinated functions, as seen in multicellular organisms.- retain membrane and ability of independence ex. Dictyostelium
89
A cell with a predominance of free ribosomes is most likely:
producing primarily cytoplasmic proteins.
90
you are searching for a mutant cell that is defective in protein glycosylation. You would most likely find such a mutant by looking for cells with defective
golgi apparti
91
Transcribed mRNA exits the nucleus through the _____________.
nuclear pores
92
Ciliates (such as Paramecium) are single-celled organisms that are covered with cilia. They use these cilia to propel them through the water in which they live. The components of the cytoskeleton that allows theses cilia to move are:
microtubules made of tubulin.
93
You are studying the effect of a mutation in vacuole formation in a Paramecium, a free living protist that lives in freshwater. This mutation greatly reduced the ability of the vacuole to function properly, so it takes much longer to empty. You place the Paramecium in water that has very few dissolved solutes (it is almost as pure as distilled water). What do you hypothesize will happen to this Paramecium?
It will take in too much water and eventually burst and die.
94
giardiasis transmission
It enters drinking water via the feces of an infected individual, and then enters the gut of another host through the mouth.
95
Drugs have various targets that disrupt the function of pathogens. Which drug would be the least useful in treating an infection caused by a protist with modified mitochondria?
ones that interfered with respiration
96
A protist that has an apical cluster of microtubules and organelles, is parasitic, and has a sporozoite stage as a component of its life cycle would likely be
an apicomplexan
97
Why do chrysophytes have carotenoids and xanthophylls
for photosynthesis
98
A biologist discovers an algae that is marine, multicellular, lives in fairly deep water, and contains the compound phycoerythrin. It probably belongs to __________________________
Kingdom Rhodophyta
99
what common characteristics do chlorophytes and plants share
chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, and starch as a storage molecule
100
All of the following are part of a prokaryotic cell except
an endoplasmic reticulum.
101
calcium is stored in the
ER smooth
102
phagocytosis and autophagy
lysosomes
103
per·ox·i·some
a small organelle that is present in the cytoplasm of many cells and that contains the reducing enzyme catalase and usually some oxidases.
104
protein synthesis
As they are being synthesized, secretory proteins enter the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. From the ER, vesicles transport these proteins to the Golgi, where they are sequentially modified and concentrated in a cis-to-trans direction. Secretory vesicles bud from the Golgi and move along cytoskeletal filaments to eventually fuse with the plasma membrane, secreting their protein cargo. Each of these transport steps requires specialized proteins to ensure that the cargo is sent to the proper location and is able to fuse with the target membrane.
105
The cells of protists that are Diplomonads, such as Giardia
don't have functional mitochondria
106
Trichonympha
protists that contain symbiotic bacteria that can digest cellulose
107
Which of these statements is TRUE of both the apicomplexans and the kinetoplastids
They have a life cycle that includes both an insect and a human host.
108
Which three groups contain large algae known as seaweeds
brown red green algae
