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Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

T or F: population growth is always constant

A

F: population growth is never constant

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2
Q

How much have global growth rates increased after 1950?

A

2.3%

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3
Q

How much has the rate of human population been declining since 1970?

A

0.8%/year

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4
Q

If population growth never declined, what would be the human population as of 2020s?

A

12 billion

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5
Q

What main event in China caused a rapid decrease in population and led to famine of 40 million people?

A

Great Leap Forward

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6
Q

What countries have slower population growth rates?

A

Italy, Japan, South Korea, Singapore

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7
Q

Why is the population of Japan shrinking?

A

Japanese are not having enough children

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8
Q

What are the population controls 2000 years ago?

A

Available resources, disease (e.g., typhus, dysentery, pneumonia, leprosy, plague, cholera), and conflict

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9
Q

What caused the collapse of the Akkadian Empire in 2100 BC?

A

Typhoid fever and plague

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10
Q

In 600-1350, there was a 40% decrease in population in Western Europe. Why?

A

Black plague

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11
Q

What was the infant mortality rate of England in 1830?

A

250 infants deaths per 1,000 births

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12
Q

What was the mortality rate of children from 0-5 years old in England in 1830?

A

430/1,000 births

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13
Q

What was the US life expectancy at birth in 1900?

A

47

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14
Q

What was the US life expectancy at birth in 1925?

A

59

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15
Q

What was the US life expectancy at birth in 2020?

A

79

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16
Q

What determines human population growth?

A
  1. Balance between in and out (births and deaths)
  2. Death rate
  3. Total fertility rate
  4. Replacement fertility
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17
Q

Equation for death rate

A

Death rate = f{conflict, disease, famine}

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18
Q

Total fertility rate (TFR)

A

Total number of children/offspring per woman

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19
Q

What was the TFR in 1960?

A

5 offspring per woman

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20
Q

Replacement fertility

A

TFR that keeps population size stable

I.e., describes how many offspring a women needs to have to maintain population size

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21
Q

What is the rule of thumb for replacement fertility?

A

2.05

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22
Q

What can we conclude when reduced poverty leads to reduced population growth?

A

TFR declines with higher income (GNP)

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23
Q

What can we conclude when universal education leads to reduced population growth?

A

Countries that have higher education for women show lower TFR

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24
Q

in 1851, people had a 60% chance of living to

A

30

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25
Q

in 2011, people had a 60% chance of living to

A

90+

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26
Q

What does the number of Earth’s human carrying capacity depend on?

A
  1. state of the earth (degrade of environment -> carrying capacity shrinks)
  2. how individuals live (what are the resource demands for the entire Earth’s population)
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27
Q

What meat resource is very demanding?

A

Beef

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28
Q

_____ is a resource-demanding fish

A

Salmon

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29
Q

Molecules

A

Combinations of two or more atoms (N2, CO2, NaCI, H2O)

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30
Q

List the bonds from strongest to weakest.

A
  1. Covalent bond
  2. Ionic bond
  3. Hydrogen bond
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31
Q

Covalent bond

A

Atoms share electrons (CO2)

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32
Q

Ionic bond

A

Atoms bound by electrical attraction (NaCI = Na+ + CI-)

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33
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

“Partial ionic bond” between molecules

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34
Q

Describe a water compound.

A

Partial charges at opposite ends of molecule

“Polar” molecule

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35
Q

high heat capacity

A

measure of amount of heat energy that must be absorbed by the substance to raise the temperature 1 degree C

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36
Q

What makes a solution acidic?

A

If H+ (protons) concentration greater than OH- (electrons)

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37
Q

What makes a solution basic?

A

If OH- (electrons) concentration is greater than H+ (protons)

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38
Q

T or F: only an acidic solution can be lethal.

A

F: both acidic and basic solutions can be lethal

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39
Q

What happens when soil is basic?

A

Nutrients (e.g., P, Mn) not soluble (unavailable to plants)

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40
Q

Dark leaves indicates ______ limitation/deficiency.

A

Phosphorus

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41
Q

What happens when soil is acidic?

A

Toxic metal ions (e.g., Al) are more available/soluble

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42
Q

In acidic soil, as pH drops and Al availability ________, plants grow ______.

A

Increases; slower

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43
Q

Atoms

A

Elemental units (“building blocks of matter”)

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44
Q

Isotopes

A

Same number of protons, but different number of neutrons

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45
Q

What are the two isotopes of hydrogen?

A

Deuterium (0.02%) - stable isotope (not radioactive, does not disappear)

Tritium (trace) - radioisotope (radioactive, spontaneous decay occurs)

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46
Q

The atmosphere (CO2) is mostly made up of which carbon isotope?

A

12C

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47
Q

Grass and shrubs discriminate against which carbon isotope?

A

13C

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48
Q

What is the preferential carbon isotope for both grass and shrubs?

A

12C

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49
Q
A
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50
Q

What is the salmon life cycle?

A

Salmon eggs hatch in a freshwater stream

Salmon return back to the stream they were born in

Female lays egg; male fertilizes eggs

Salmon die and rot

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51
Q

How do the nitrogen isotopes in marine and terrestrial environments differ, and in what ways do salmon contribute to the nitrogen cycle on land after their death, particularly regarding terrestrial invertebrates near streams?

A

[Marine 15N/14N] /= [terrestrial 15N/14N]
Marine food → salmon body → death, decay → terrestrial
Terrestrial invertebrate animals near stream: up to 70% of N in body
Salmon act as fertilizers for animals that live on land far from the ocean
Salmon collect N from the ocean
Salmon deposit N after death

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52
Q

What are four different independent developments of agriculture?

A
  1. China: rice
  2. Fertile crescent: wheat
  3. Central America: potatoes
  4. Mesoamerica: corn, squash
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53
Q

Describe the evolution of agriculture

A

Subsistence agriculture: production for family

Intensive traditional agriculture: animals + irrigation + fertilizer → excess for sale

Modern intensive agriculture: monocultures since ca. 1950

Green Revolution: intensification of industrial agriculture + crop (artificial genetic) selection; since 1960

Today: ca. 40% of Earth’s surface converted to agriculture and raising livestock

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54
Q

What are the functions of soil?

A
  1. Regulates water cycle (controls flow of rain, snowmelt)
  2. Productivity
  3. Filters pollutants (sequester or detoxify)
  4. Nutrient cycling (organic —> inorganic)
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55
Q

Autotrophic plants

A

CO2 + H2O —> carbohydrate
CO2 + H2O + NO3 + PO4 —> protein

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56
Q

Heterotrophic fungi, bacteria

A

Carbohydrate —> CO2 + H2O
Protein —> CO2 + H2O + NO3 + PO4

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57
Q

Soil = mix of ______ + _______

A

Organic; inorganic

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58
Q

Rhizosphere

A

Interface between plant roots and soil

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59
Q

Where do rhizobium bacteria “infect” legumes?

A

Nodules/roots

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60
Q

How do plants respond to the infection of Rhizobium bacteria, and what mutual benefits arise from this relationship?

A

Plants respond by forming a scar tissue around the bacteria

Both plant and bacteria benefit

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61
Q

How do Rhizobium bacteria break down the strong triple covalent bonds of nitrogen?

A

Convert N2 (gas) → NH4 (ammonium)
Plants → N (organic)

Soil decomposers: N (organic) → NH4 (ammonium) → N2 (gas)

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62
Q

where are Mycorrhizal fungi located on plants?

A

partly inside and outside plant root

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63
Q

What are some soil threats?

A
  1. non-native earthworms
  2. irrigation practices
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63
Q

Explain the mutualistic symbiosis of mycorrhizal fungi and plants

A

Plant root gives some carbohydrate to fungi

Fungi take in water and nutrients from soil environment and feed it to plant

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64
Q

What percent of all freshwater use is for crop irrigation?

A

70%

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65
Q

Why is over-irrigation a problem?

A

Over-irrigation —> waterlog plant roots —> poor growth, death

Soil becomes soggy

Roots need oxygen

Too much water = water diffuses much slower

Plants are not getting enough oxygen

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66
Q

Salinization

A

Buildup of salts in surface of soil layers

67
Q

What occurs during salinization?

A

Evaporation removes water, leaves salts

Water comes up to surface and evaporates

Salts in the water do not come ip to surface and are left behind

68
Q

Why are conventional irrigation practices wasteful?

A

Less than Half of water reaches plants

Most of the water released from the rotators is evaporated

69
Q

What is drip irrigation and why is it better than conventional irrigation practices?

A

In drip irrigation, water drips out slowly (reduces chance of evaporation)

Conserves water, saves money and reduces salinization

70
Q

Why are monocultures an issue?

A

Economically efficient, but risk of “all eggs in one basket”

Reduced global diversity of crop plants

71
Q

What is the problem with pesticide use?

A

Pesticides gradually become less effective as pests evolve resistance

The few pests that survive pesticide reproduce and pass on pesticide resistance genes to next generation

72
Q

GMOs

A

Organisms whose genetic constitution has been altered by engineers with a specific outcome in mind

73
Q

What is the purpose of GMOs?

A

Attempt to ramp up food increase

74
Q

What happens to organisms that go through GMOs?

A

Organisms grow bigger and faster

75
Q

Artificial selection

A

Manipulating organism’s genetic material by selecting mating, harvest

76
Q

Artificial selection is a selection of

A

Who mates with who

77
Q

What are examples of artificial selection?

A

Different dog breeds
- all come from same genetic stock (wolves)

Teosinte —> corn

Wild mustard (origin)
- cabbage
- broccoli
- kale
- cauliflower
- kohlrabi

78
Q

Genetic engineering

A

Adding, deleting, or changes segments of DNA

79
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

combination of original DNA plus some modification

80
Q

Example of recombinant DNA

A
81
Q

What are benefits of GMOs?

A
  1. Increase food production without nature conversion
  2. Less pesticide use
82
Q

Eutrophication

A

Over-fertilization of the natural environment

83
Q

In eutrophication, phytoplankton are supplied with _____ and _____, leading to extreme phytoplankton growth.

A

Sulfur; phosphorus

84
Q

What meat has the greatest grain feed demand?

A

Beef (20 kg feed/kg produced)

85
Q

What meat has the lowest demand of grain feed demand?

A

Chicken (less than 5 kg feed/kg produced)

86
Q

Aquaculture

A

Raising aquatic organisms under controlled conditions

87
Q

What are benefits of aquaculture?

A

reliability (controlling conditions)

Can be small-scale

Reduce fishing of wild stocks

Uses less fossil fuel than capturing fishing (Less use of boats to travel from place to place to capture fish)

88
Q

What are environmental impacts of aquaculture?

A

high density –> disease, antibiotics

Waste production: high amounts of waste (urine, feces) is produced

Farmed fish escape to interbreed with or spread disease to wild fish

Animals often fed fish meal (e.g., salmon chow)

89
Q

By catch equation

A

By-catch impact = discards (what we throw away)/total caught (what we catch)

90
Q

What are some reasons for the extinction of Steller’s sea cow?

A
  1. slow
  2. Similar to beef in taste
  3. Low reproductive output (1 calf/litter, 12 month gestation)
  4. Only found in the pacific northwest (low distribution)
  5. Blubber for cooking (rendered for lamp oil)
91
Q

What is the main cause o death for marine whales?

A

collisions with boats

92
Q

What is the origin natural gas and petroleum come from?

A

marine plants

93
Q

Crude oil

A

sludgy hydrocarbon mix

94
Q

Oil was first used 4,000 years ago as what?

A

asphalt

95
Q

When did modern extraction of oil begin?

A

1850s

96
Q

fracking

A

hydraulic fracturing

97
Q

Sulfure in coal -> ______ + _____ -> ________ -> _________ + ______

A

SO2 (sulfur dioxide); H2O (water); H2SO4 (sulfuric acid); 2H+; SO42-

98
Q

Anything below ___ pH is considered to be an effect of acid precipitation

A

5

99
Q

Where is most of acid precipitation?

A

Ohio Valley (< 4.3)

100
Q

Oil (tar) sand include the following:

A

clay, sand, water, and viscous bitumen

101
Q

Oil (tar) sands are ____ with a mix of _____

A

sand soil; acid asphalt

102
Q

What is required to liquify oil (tar) sands?

A

Heat

103
Q

Oil (tar) sands is ____ of the world’s total oil resevres

A

2/3

104
Q

Oil (tar) sands have a high ____ content

A

sulfur

105
Q

Shale oil

A

rock rich in organic kerogen

106
Q

Kerogen is converted to oil via what process?

A

pyrolysis

107
Q

Pyrolysis occurs at what temperatures?

A

445-500 C

108
Q

Methane hydrates

A

crystalline solid (CH4 molecules, each surrounded by a cage of water molecules)

109
Q

Where are methane hydrates located?

A

Arctic regions and marine sediments at depths > 300 m

110
Q

How much oil was spilled in the Exxon Valdez spill?

A

11 million gallons

111
Q

What happened in the Deepwater horizon blowout?

A

Drillsite on fire

Oil spills ended up on the beaches of Louisiana, Texas, etc.

Beaches covered with layer of oil

112
Q

How much oil was spilled during the deepwater horizon blowout?

A

134 million gallons (over 87 days (5,000 ft))

113
Q

What are the most common type of oil spills?

A

Microspills

114
Q

How much of petroleum inputs in ocean are from a natural source?

A

48%

115
Q

How much of petroleum inputs in ocean are from a source greater than natural?

A

8%

116
Q

What are the biggest threats in developing nations in regards to indoor air pollution?

A

Cigarette smoke (first and secondhand smoke)

Indoor fires

117
Q

What are the biggest threats in industrialized nations in regards to indoor air pollution?

A

Cigarette smoke (first and secondhand smoke)

Radon (naturally occurring radioactive gas)

118
Q

Radon is associated with what type of cancer?

A

Lung cancer

119
Q

Describe radon gas

A

Radioactive
Colorless, odorless
occurs naturally

120
Q

Where does radon gas come from?

A

Uranium ores

Granite, gneiss, and schist

121
Q

Atmosphere

A

layer of gasses surrounding planet

122
Q

What is the function of the atmosphere to humans?

A
  1. absorbs solar radiation (esp. UV)
  2. transports & recycles water (and other materials)
  3. determines climate
123
Q

List the invariant gasses and their percentages

A

nitrogen (78%)
oxygen (21%)
argon (1%)

124
Q

List variable (greenhouse) gasses:

A

Water vapor
carbon dioxide
methane
nitrous oxide
ozone
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

125
Q

Climate

A

long term pattern of atmospheric conditions

126
Q

Global warming

A

increase in Earth’s average surface temperature

127
Q

What are factors that influence climate?

A
  1. Sun energy source; provides heat for Earth
  2. Atmosphere - absorbs, reflects, transmits energy
  3. Oceans - stores, transports energy, and moderates heat
128
Q

Global warming potential

A

relative ability of one molecule of a greenhouse gas to contribute to global warming over 100 years

129
Q

CO2 concentration has increased by _____ (_____ parts/thousand) since Industrial Revolution

A

50%; 280-420

130
Q

Why are non-native earthworms a threat to soil?

A

Reduce soil biodiversity, productivity

131
Q

Where do non-native earthworms come from?

A

Asia

132
Q

In what ways does intensive agriculture cause environmental harm?

A

Fertilizer pollution
Pesticide pollution
Water depletion (irrigation)
Fossil fuel use

133
Q

What was the goal os the Green Revolution?

A

increases crop output per area land

134
Q

Example of recombinant DNA

A

Bt-protected crops

135
Q

Explain how Bt-protected crops are an example of recombinant DNA?

A

Soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis

Produces toxic to defend against predators

Toxin-producing gene is taken → Bt endotoxin

95% U.S. soybeans, 85% corn, and 90% cotton GM

US = 40% global GMA production)

136
Q

What are scientific concerns about GMOs from least to most increasing likelihood?

A
  1. Human health risks (No evidence suggesting GMOs affect human health)
  2. Can tansgenes for pest resistance “jump” from crops to weeds (–> “superweeds”)?
  3. Pests will evolve resistance to Gm crops just as with pesticides?
137
Q

What are socioeconomic and political concerns regarding GMOs?

A

Ethics of “playing God?”
Food supply risk?
- Adequate testing? Is outside oversight adequate?

138
Q

The fish problem

A
  1. Decrease in water quality of freshwater
  2. Increase in demand for (water) power
  3. Overfishing of freshwater fish
139
Q

shifting baselines

A

change evaluated based on current state

each generation = new baseline

140
Q

What is the assumption of shifting baselines concept?

A

“current state is normal”

141
Q

Why is by-catch a problem?

A

“Non-target” species caught

Non-specific equipment (e.g., nets)

142
Q

Estuaries mix ____ and ____

A

fresh and saltwater

143
Q

Name two ocean threats

A
  1. Plastic debris
  2. Microplastic debris
144
Q

What does the sankey diagram say about energy use?

A

33% of energy goes to doing things for us
67% of energy contained does nothing for us
Wasted; dissipated as heat

145
Q

Geothermal

A

heat from the ground

146
Q

Industrial Smog

A

Burning sulfur-rich coal (or oil):
- SO2 - respiratory, cardiovascular
- SO2 → sulfuric acid (acid ppt)
-Ammonium sulfate (eutrophication)
-CO2 (GHG)
- CO - respiratory

147
Q

London’s 1952 “Killer Smog”

A

December 1952, thick smog over London

Smog from industrial pollution, fossil-fuel combustion

Killed ca. 10,000 people

148
Q

Photochemical Smog

A

From reaction of sunlight with pollutants (VOCs, ozone)

“Brown-gree air smog”

Hot, sunny days + autos

149
Q

Earth’s Energy Budget prior to human modification

A

Incoming solar energy/radiation
- Some absorbed by clouds
-Large amount absorbed by gasses in atmosphere
-Most absorbed by land and oceans

In equilibrium: in = out
- Balanced by energy that leaves

150
Q

Earth’s Energy Budget after human modification

A

Amount absorbed by atmospheres and cloud have increases
Not balanced
Less energy/heat leaving
- Earth is warmer

151
Q

What is the global warming potentials of carbon dioxide?

A

1

152
Q

What is the global warming potentials of methane

A

23

153
Q

What is the global warming potentials of nitrous oxide

A

296

154
Q

What is the global warming potentials of

A

12,000

155
Q

What are the take home messages of

A

Since humans in the industrial revolution began contributing to atm CO2, concentration has spiked significantly
Greater increase over a shorter period compared to over thousands of years before human modification
Current: highest CO2 in past 800,000 years
CO2 continues to rise
Temperature lags behind CO2

Pre-industrial: CO2 and average global surface temperature are relatively constant with each other prior to the industrial revolution
CO2 and global temperature are tightly linked/coupled
CO2 absorbs heat energy

Global surface temperature and CO2 concentration varied naturally before humans modified the atmosphere

Temperature has varied about 10 C (no human contribution)

156
Q

Methane

A

anaerobic (w/o oxygen) process

157
Q

What has contributed to the increase in methane since 1750?

A

Fossil fuel extraction
Landfills (oxygen is absent)
Rice paddies (oxygen is absent)
Cattle (gas digestion)
- Release methane into atmosphere

158
Q

How much has methane increased since 1750?

A

155%

159
Q

What has contributed to the increase in nitrous oxide since 1750?

A

Auto emissions
Feedlots
Agriculture

160
Q

How much has nitrous oxide increased since 1750?

A

17%

161
Q

One cow emits __________ liters of ____ gas/day

A

800-1000; CH4

162
Q

_______ cuts methane emissions by 40%

A

Oregano

163
Q

What is Happening: Physical Changes

A

Ocean temps increasing
Greater incidence of severe storms
Sea level rising (3 mm/year)
- Ice is melting faster

164
Q

Acidification

A

Ocean is becoming more acidic

Half of CO2 emitted in atm gets dissolved into ocean

CO2 reacts with water

Environmental Science (9 decks)

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