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ANS 230 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What do high starch diets cause in ruminants

A

-Rapid fermentation
-SCFA and lactic acid production
-Decrease in rumen pH
-rumen acidosis
-disruption in ruminal function

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2
Q

When is rumen acidosis subclinical

A

pH is approximately 5.5

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3
Q

What are subclinical signs that the ruminant is undergoing rumen acidosis

A

-Decreased Intake
Gain

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4
Q

When is rumen acidosis clinical

A

when the pH is less than five

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5
Q

Clinical Signs of rumen acidosis

A

increase lactic acid
metabolic acidosis
damage to papillae
microbial death and release of endotoxins

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6
Q

Is subclinical or clinical rumen acidosis more dangerous

A

subclinical because you can’t usually see the signs so then you can’t treat it or manage it

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7
Q

Associated problems with rumen acidosis

A

parakeratosis (hardening of the papillae tissue)
liver abscesses
laminitis

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8
Q

Rumen Acidosis prevention

A

-reduce grain
-feed additives (buffers, ionopheres)
-the chewing of cud also helps because it produces saliva and helps buffer the pH

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9
Q

Glucose homeostasis in ruminants

A

50-80mg/dl

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10
Q

Glucose homeostasis in simple stomachs

A

80-120mg/dl

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11
Q

Why is there reduced glucose fluctuations in ruminants

A

-more time spent eating and ruminating
-prolonged digesta flow
-steady VFA production
-continuous glucogenesis

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12
Q

Glucose requirements in ruminants

A

don’t typically feed glucose to meet energy requirements since it rapidly ferments and drops pH

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13
Q

Source of glucose precursors in ruminants

A

1.) propionate
2.) amino acids
3.) lactic acid
4.) glycerol

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14
Q

Source of gllucose for ruminats

A

25% comes from diet and 75% comes from gluconeogenesis from propionate

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15
Q

Lipids

A

-“Lipos’ meaning fat
-insoluble in H20
-Hydrocarbons-CH2-CH2-CH2
-Not a polymer

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16
Q

Lipids energy compared to glycogen

A

6x equivelant mass of glycogen

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17
Q

Short Chain Fatty Acids

A

2-5 carbons
soluble in water

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17
Q

Fatty Acids

A

Hydrocarbon chains with 2 or more carbon atoms and a carboxyl group

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17
Q

Medium chain fatty acids

A

6-12 carbons
soluble at physiological conditions

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18
Q

Long chain fatty acids

A

13-20 carbons
generally insoluble

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19
Q

Very long chain fatty acids

A

> 20 carbons (also insoluable)

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20
Q

Simple Lipids

A

Include fats and oils
-comprised of 3 fatty acids each in ester linkage with a single glycerol (triacylglycerol)
-Make up the largest fraction (~98%) of lipids in animal feeds

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21
Q

Glycolipids

A

-esters of glycerol with CHO
-widely present in plants and major lipid component of forages
-in animals, glycolipids serve as markers for cell recognition and as energy sources
-maintain cell membrane stability

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22
Q

Phospholipids

A

-fats complexed with phosphoric acid
-water insoluable and water soluble regions
-critical for membrane function
-most abundant biological membranes

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23
Q

Sphingolipids

A

-Based on sphingosine
-1870s-discovered in brain extracts
-abundant in brain tissues-sphingomyelon
-serve as adhesion sites for proteins, signaling and recognition
-meet,dairy,eggs and soybeans are good sources

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24
Q

Lipoproteins

A

-Lipids linked with proteins
-synthesized in SI and liver
-Protein emulsifies lipid
-Proportion of protein varies that relates to the density
-chylomicrons

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25
Q

3 carbon fatty acid

A

-propionic acid
-microbial action in the gut

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26
Q

4 carbon fatty acid

A

-microbial action in the gut
-used as energy in cells
-remove the acid you get butane

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27
Q

8 carbon fatty acid

A

-octanoic FA
-common name is caprylic acid
-made in the body
-if you remove the acid you get octane (which is in gas)

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28
Q

Properties that determine fatty acid function

A

-chain length
-degree of saturation
-location and type of double bond

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29
Q

Fatty acid chain length

A

-volatillity decreases with chain length
-14-16 Carbon-solid at room temp
-5-12 carbon-liquid at room temp
-Long chain fatty acids-higher melting point

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30
Q

Saturated fatty acid chains

A

pack tightly and form more rigid, organized aggregates (membranes) have a higher melting point than unsaturated fatty acids

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31
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids

A

bend and pack in a less ordered way, with greater potential for motion

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32
Q

what are the only lipids that need to be supplied in the diet

A

Omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid)
Omega-3 fatty acids (linolenic fatty acids)

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33
Q

Common saturated fatty acids

A

-Lauric 12:0
-Myristic 14:0
-Palmitic 16:0
-Stearic 18:0

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34
Q

Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A

Palmitoleic 16:1
Oleic 18:1
Linoleic 18:2
Linolenic 18:3

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35
Q

Cis Double bond

A

-kinked and hydrogens are on the same side

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36
Q

Trans double bond

A

straight and hydrogens are on opposite sides

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37
Q

Cell Membrane

A

-Holds components together
-protects intra and extra environment
-regulates entry and release of nutrients and gas

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38
Q

Temperature affect on membrane fluidity

A

when it cold phospholipids are found closer together and when its hot they move farther apart

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39
Q

Degree of unsaturation effect on membrane fluidity

A

saturated fatty acids have only single bonds with straight chains making them easy to pack. unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or multiple double bonds, these double bonds create kinks making it harder to pack tightly

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40
Q

Membrane fluidity in the cold without cholesterol

A

-rigid
-not as fluid/flexible
-may break

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41
Q

Membrane fluidity in the cold with cholesterol

A

increased fluidity and flexibility

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42
Q

Membrane fluidity in the heat without cholesterol

A

-too fluid/flexible
-won’t hold shape

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43
Q

Membrane fluidity in the heat with cholesterol

A

decrease fluidity and increase rigidity

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44
Q

Lipid Digestion in the mouth (non-ruminants)

A

lingual lipase hydrolyze TAGs

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45
Q

Lipid Digestion in the mouth (pre-ruminants)

A

saliva contains lipase known as pregastric esterase for limited TAGs hydrolysis

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46
Q

Lipid digestion in the mouth for ruminants

A

negligble salivary lipase activity

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47
Q

Lipid digestion in the stomach with non-ruminants

A

-proteases release lipids from feed
-ligual and gastric lipases (latter secreated in fundic region)
-Gastric lipase activity is higher in suckling neonates and higher toward milk TAGs
-pancreatic lipase is higher in adults

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48
Q

Fate of Lipids in the rumen

A

-hydrolysis of TAGs in the rumen
-unsaturated FA undergo rumen biohydrogenation
-a limit to fat inclusion in diet-generally about 8% supplemental fat (DM basis)

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49
Q

biohydrogenation

A

a process that occurs in the rumen in which bacteria convert unsaturated fatty acids (USFA) to saturated fatty acids (SFA)

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50
Q

Duodenal Lipolysis

A

-pancreatic lipase attaches to surface of triglyceride globules
-products are FFAs and 2MGs

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51
Q

When are pancreatic lipase very efficent

A

-neutral pH
-Mixing
-Bile Salts (emulsify lipids)
-Co-lipase

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52
Q

Micelles

A

20nm in diameter
-they make transport of fats and vitamins to the enterocyte membrane highly efficient

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53
Q

Micelle Formation

A

-Mono and FFa combine with bile and complex with other lipids to form micelles

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54
Q

Whats in a chylomicrons

A

apolipopproteins
-phospholipid and cholesteral coat core

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55
Q

Apolipoproteins

A

act as cofactors for enzymes or ligands

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56
Q

Lipoproteins core

A

TG and cholesterol

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57
Q

Lipoproteins shell

A

proteins and phospholipids

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58
Q

What has the highest ratio of lipids to protein

A

chylomicrons

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59
Q

Chylomicrons

A

-form in small intestine mucosal epithelial cells
-transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue

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60
Q

Very Low density lipoproteins

A

-form in hepatocytes
-transport endogenous lipids to adipocytes

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61
Q

Low Density Lipoproteins (bad cholesterol)

A

-carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood
-deliver to body cells for repair and synthesis

62
Q

High Density ipoproteins (good cholesterol)

A

-remove excess cholesterol from body cells and blood
-deliver to liver for elimination

63
Q

Lipogenesis

A

the conversion of glucose or amino acids into lipids and is stimulated by insulin

64
Q

What are the intermediary links in lipogenesis

A

-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
-acetyl coenzyme a

65
Q

Lipogenisis steps

A

1.) glycerol can be made from glucose through glycolysis
2.) two-carbon acyl units from acetyl CoA are linked together by fatty acid synthesis to form fatty acids
3.)one glycerol plus 3 fatty acids make a triglyceride

66
Q

Lipolysis

A

-glycerol converted into glucose by conversion into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
-the resulting molecules of acetyl coenzyme A enter the krebs cycle

67
Q

Oxaloacetate

A

allows entry of acetyl-CoA into citric acid cycle

68
Q

When is oxaloacetate depleted

A

acetyl -CoA is converted into ketone bodies

69
Q

Ketogenesis

A

as part of normal fatty acid catabolism two acetyl coA molecules can form acetoacetic acid which can then be converted to beta-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone
-the three substance formed are known as ketone bodies

70
Q

Excess ketone bodies in blood

A

ketonemia

71
Q

Excess ketone bodies in urine

A

ketonuria

72
Q

Amphoteric molecules

A

can be both acids and bases

73
Q

Peptide bonds

A

what bound amino acids together

74
Q

What gives amino acids there charecterisitic

A

R-groups

75
Q

Hydrophobic interactions

A

these amino acids orient themselves towards the center of the polypeptide to avoid the water

76
Q

Disulphide Bridge

A

the amino acid cysteine forms a bond with another cysteine through its R groups

77
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Polar R groups on the amino acids form binds with Polar R groups

78
Q

Hydrophilic Interactions

A

These amino acids orient themselves outward to be close to the water

79
Q

Ionic Bonds

A

Positively charged R groups bond together

80
Q

Primary Protein Structure

A

Polypeptide strand

81
Q

Secondary structure

A

-alpha helix
-beta pleated sheet

82
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

folding of secondary structure

83
Q

Quaternary Structure

A

polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner

84
Q

Protein Permutations

A

20 AA can from 400 dipeptides of 8000 different tripeptides
There are 20^n combinations of N amino acids

85
Q

Sickle Cell Anemia

A

where an incorrect amino acid sequence interferes with the cell’s ability to carry oxygen

86
Q

Mad cow disease

A

all the amino acids are there but they are folded wrong

87
Q

Amphoteric Amino Acids

A

pH alters formation
May exist as
-uncharged molecules
-ionic charge
-mixture

88
Q

Properties of amino acids

A

-acts as a buffer resisting pH change
-Acidic solution AA exist largely as Cations
-alkaline solution AA exist as anions

89
Q

Transamination

A

transfer of the amine (nitrogen) molecule

90
Q

Deamination

A

removal (cleave) of the amine (nitrogen) group

91
Q

How are indespensible amino acids formed

A

provided in the diet, the microbes also supply them

92
Q

Amino acid storage in body

A

-can’t be stored by the body in the same manner as fat and starch
-adequate intake is essential for optimal growth and health of animals
-excess results in wasting, pollution, digestive, hepatic and renal abnormalities

93
Q

De Novo Synthesis

A

when essential AA are formed from indepesnible AA

94
Q

Supply of Amino Acids

A

-exogenous proteins(digestion and absoprtion)
-tissue protein turnoer (mobilize one tissue to another)
-de novo synthesis

95
Q

Disposal of excess AA

A

-oxidation (CO2 and NH3)
-Ureageneses
-Gluconeogenesis

96
Q

“limiting AA”

A

AA that is in the shortest supply relative to reqs
-usually and indepsnible AAlt
-Lysine and Metanine *typically limiting

97
Q

“spiky” sonic protein

A

first discovered in the fruit fly
has spiky look
provides information for embryos to develop
pivotal in separating your right brain from your left
make sure we have two individual eyes

98
Q

Ranasmurfin

A

protein prdouced. by tree frogs that is blye
-foam produced by females to protect the eggs

99
Q

Protein Catabolism

A

proteins are broken into amino acids by hydrolysis of their peptide bonds

100
Q

deamination

A

removal of the amino group from and amino acid which creates an ammonia and an organic acid
-ammonia gets removed in urea

101
Q

Animals that release ammonia

A

bony fishes and the larvae of amphibia

102
Q

animals that release urea

A

many terrestrial vertebrates and ahsarks

103
Q

animals that release uric acid

A

bird and reptiles

104
Q

When was the discover and Isolation of Vitamins Discovered

A

1912

105
Q

Where does the word vitamin come from

A

Vit-comes from the word vital and amine comes from when they thought amines made up vitamins

106
Q

Polioencephalomalacia

A

Deficiency of Vitamin D1/thymine

107
Q

What vitamin deficency causes rickets

A

Vitamin D

108
Q

Scurvy

A

Vitamin C defiency

109
Q

Symptoms of scurvy

A

-the structure of collagen is defective
-spongy gums, bleeding from mucous membranes

110
Q

Functions of Vitamin C

A

-antioxidant
-synthesis of collagen
-synthesis of carnitine
-biosynthesis of norepinephrine

111
Q

What are vitamins

A

-organic compounds required in small amounts
-cofactors in metabolic reactions
-donor or acceptor groups for metabolic intermediates
-enzyme precursors, coenzyme and antioxidants

112
Q

Fat Soluble Vitamins

A

-Vitamins A, D, E, K
-Associated with fat during digestion and absorption
-storage in liver, adipose tissue and excess storage can be toxic for some vitamins
-no daily need
deficiency is very slow

113
Q

Water-Soluble Vitamins

A

-total nine, all B vitamins and vitamin c
-Soluble in water and excess excreted through urine
-no storage and less toxic
-daily requirement(expect b12)
-serve as cofactor in biochemical reactions
-deficiency is fast

114
Q

Vitamin A

A

-Discovered in 1922 as a “fat-soluble factor” present in butter and fish oil
-includes several related compounds
-retinol is the biologically active form of Vit A

115
Q

Functions of Vitamin A

A

-vision
-bone-growth
-reporduction
-maintenance of epithelial cells
-antioxidant

116
Q

Hypervitaminoses

A

varies with species, age and physiological condition. Results in skeletal abnormalities and thickening of skin

117
Q

Vitamin D

A

-sterol compound
-regulates Ca and P metabolism
-formed by irradiation of sterols in plants and skin
-confined animals require vitamin D
-vitamin D3 needed for carnivores and omnivores

118
Q

cats and vitamin D

A

-do not make vit D
-included in diet
-7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to cholesterol

119
Q

1.25-dihydroxycholecalciferol

A

-steroid hormone acitivity
-regulates DNA transcription in microvilli
-synthesis of RNA-responsible for ca-binding protein

120
Q

Vitamin E

A

-group of compounds called tocopherols and tocotrienols
-a-tocopherol most active biological form added to diets

121
Q

Functions of Vitamin E

A

-antioxidant to protect cells from oxidative damage induced by free radicals
-prevents oxidation of lipids s
-lipid peroxidation causes damage to unsaturated lipids in cell membranes resulting in the disruption of the structural membrane and cell integrity
-peroxidation can reduce palatability and animal health
-protects proteins and VIt A

122
Q

Deficiency of Vitamin E

A

-white muscle disease (degeneration of heart muscle)
-exudative diathesis in chickens( leaky capillaries in breast muscle)
-encephalomalacia (crazy chick disease)

123
Q

Toxicity of Vitamin E

A

-least toxic of the fat-soluble vitamins
-high levels are added in diets of animals to enhance food nutritional value and lipid stability

124
Q

Vitamin K

A

-Includes a group of compounds call quinones
-vit k1 found in plants
-Vit K2 synthesized by microbes
Menaquinone is the metabolically active form

125
Q

Functions of Vitamin K

A

-synthesis of prothrombin blood-clotting protein
-Gi reacts microbes a good source of Vit K-abosrption or coprophagy
-mold growth on sweet clover hay or silage contains dicumarol, similar to Vit K in structure and competitive inhibitor

126
Q

Water soluble vitamins

A

-no provitamins
-responsible primarily in energy transfer
-absorbed more easily and readily from SI
-water soluble vitamins are not stored to a great extent
-excretiom occurs both in feces and urine
-rumen microbes can synthesize all

127
Q

Animal products vitamin content

A

rich in most vitamin including lipid soluble but deficient in Vit C

128
Q

Microbial Fermentation VItamin Concentration

A

-supplies vit B12, K and biotin
-need other vitamins in diet

129
Q

Concetrates VItamin Concentration

A

B vitamins

130
Q

Functions of Minerals

A

-Constitute -4% of the animals body weight
-expression and regulation of genes and enzymes
-cellular function, osmotic balance, detoxification, immunity, acid-base balance and growth
-O2 transport requires Fe
-Thyroid hormone made using I

131
Q

Macro minerals

A

required in large quantities in the diet (>0.01%)

132
Q

Microminerals

A

required in trace amounts (<0.01%) in mg, ug or ppm

133
Q

How are the minerals added in the diet

A

minerals cannot be added to a diet in their elemental forms but rather need to be added as salts that ar combined with other minerals (NaCl, CaCO3, MnSO4 etc..)

134
Q

Calcium and phosphorus functions

A

-structural-growth and naintenance
-nervous and muscle contraction

135
Q

What are some of calciums individual functions

A

-gorwth or maintence of bone mass
-blood coagulation, nerve impulse and cell permeability maintenance
-ezyme activation, muscle contraction and ion channels

136
Q

How is phophorus involved in phosphorylation reactions

A

-ATP
-DNA and RNA contain phosphorylated pentose sugars
-Cell membrane phospholipids (cellular fluidity anf transport of nutrients)

137
Q

Phosphorus features

A

P is present in the bound form as phylate or phytic acid
-the availability of P from bound sources varies (20%-60%)
-monogastric animals lack the enzyme phytase to release P from the bound form
-ruminant animals produce microbial phytase enzyme that can split and liberate phosphorus

138
Q

Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

A

-body has a strict homeostatic regulation-steady state blood plasma Ca
-Parathyroid hormone, calictocin ad activr formes of vitamin D

139
Q

What happens in hypocalcemia

A

PTH is released from the parathyroid gland, increasing Ca and P resorption from bone, P excretion into urine and synthesis of active forms of vitamin d
-this in turn increases absorption of dietary Ca from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

140
Q

Ca:P ratio

A

1:1 small animals
2:1 large animals
-excess dietary Ca forms insoluble complexes with phosphorus resulting in decreased P absorption
-High P or phytate P in the diet can inhibit Ca absorption

141
Q

When is excess P and low Ca common

A

in animals fed grain based or low quality hay diets
pets fed homeade meat-based diets

142
Q

Ca & P deficiency or imbalance

A

-bone growth disorders eggshell quality in egg-laying hens
-Rickets is a condition occuring in young animals due to normal gowth in the organic matrix but insufficent mineralization
-osteomalacia occurs in adult animals (excessive loss of Ca causing brittle deminerlaized bones)
-In both rickets and osteomalacia bones become soft and often deformed due to improper calcification

143
Q

Hypocalcemia

A

-tetany and convulsions-severe Ca defincency
-Milk fever or parturient paresis
-drop in body temperature,animal collapses with head bent over the flank

144
Q

Hypocalcemia treatment

A

raise blood Ca through intravenous supply of Ca salts such as CaCl2, Ca-lactate or Ca gluconate

145
Q

Magnesium

A

-presnet as phosphate and carbonate in bone and in liver and skeletal muscle cells
-strucural role in the skeletal system
-activation of enzymes in the cells
-metabolism of carb and proteins
important from muscle contraction and transmission of nerve impulses

146
Q

Magnesium deficiency

A

-grass tetany
-affects livestock on lush green pastures of cereal forages of native pastures in the spring season
-N and K inhibit MG absorption

147
Q

Magnesium Deficienncy symptoms

A

-muscle tetany, head retraction, staggering, convulsion and extreme senstitivity to noise or touch

148
Q

Sodium

A

-common salt (NaCl) is added to the diets of all animals and is given free choice to grazing animals
-Na+ maintains cell permeability in the active transport of nutrients across membranes
-Na_+ pump controles electrolyte balance
-required for muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission

149
Q

Magnesium Deficency Treatment

A

-include intravenous injection of Mg solution, feeding Mg from different sources, pasture rotation and providing dry forages

150
Q

Potassium

A

-major cation found in greater concentrations in intracellular fluid
-Ionizsed K+ inside cells provide osmotic force and maintains fluid volume
-cellular K+ is also involved in enzymatic reactions
-K+ balance important for normal heart muscle functions

151
Q

Chlorine (Cl-)

A

-counterbalances the role of K+ and Na+
-also regulates osmostic pressure
-HCl, activation of gastric enzymes, protein digestion
-suppiled through NaCl in the animal diet

152
Q

Dietary Electrolyte Balance in Food Animal Health and Production

A

-In ruminants, electrolyte balance is important in preventing acidosis and alkalosis
-DCAD reduces the incidence of milk fever
-prepartum alkalosis may increase the incedence of milk fever wheras acidosis may prevent it
-prepartum diets high in forages could reduce the ability of the cow to maintain Ca homeostasis and cause milk fever
-diets that reduce blood pH can increase blood Ca and reduce the milk fever

153
Q

Chromium and Glucose

A

-Cr is part of a molecule ‘glucose tolerance factor’ & required for normal glucose entry into cells
-supplemented into piglet diets and pregnant sows to improve glucose utilization
-enhances milk production in lactating cows

ANS 230 (6 decks)

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