Exam 1 Flashcards
Tissue
group of many cells that work together to perform a specific function
organ system
group of organs working together to perform major functions to meet the physiological needs of the body
bacteria
single celled organisms
Cell
smallest independtly functioning unit
organ
anatomically distinct structure composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs a specific physiological function
nutrients
Complex molecules of varying molecular structure
What are the six nutrients
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, minerals and vitamins
carbohydrates
C, H and O energy source and storage
proteins
amino acids as building blocks; energy source
Water
all rxs occur in water; all cells bathed in water
Lipids
Insoluable in H2O; source of energy; membranes
Indespensible Nutritio
-essential to the animal
-must be provided in the diet
-cannot be synthesized by the animal
“conditionally indispensible”, not synthesized in sufficent quantities
Nutrients may be
-a source of energy
-required in large or small amounts
-organic or inorganic
DIspensible Nutrition
-do not need to include in the diet
-synthesized by the animal
-still considered essential
What two things do only a plant cell have
1.) a rigid cell wall
2.)chloroplasts-photosynthesis
How do plants store energy
starch
How do animals store energy
they store it as glycogen or triglycerides
What does fiber provide microbes with
fermentative capacity
Research Bytes:Sugar Alternative
saccharin and sucralose seem to impact our body
it also showes the food we consume alters our gut microbiome.
In plants where are carbohydrates present in
-the cell contents as sugar or starch
-the cell wall as cellulose and hemicellulose
Carbohydrates (CHO) Charecterisitics
-comprise 60% and 90% of the DM in plants
-contains C, H and O
-Basic energy source in animals cells
- constitute greatest proportion of the diets for herbivores
What do carbohydrates provide in plants
cellulose and hemicellulose (water-insoluable) provide stability and mechanical firmness
What is nutrition
science that interpreys the interaction of nutrients that affect maintenace, growth, reproduction, lactation, and health
what does nutrition focus on
the metabolic pathways through which molecues inside us are transformed from one form to another
Catabolism
breakdown of nutrients, generates chemical energy and heat
anabolism
assimilation of new chemicals for structure and function-uses energy
metabolism
interconversion of nutrients to supply energy
redox potential
ability to accept electrons in a redox reaction
Oxidation
chemical reaction that results in the loss of electrons
reduction
chemical reaction that results in the gain of electrons
antoine avoisier
“father of nutrition
-transfer of food and oxygen into heat and water creating energy
-established the chemical basis of nutrition in a respiration experiment
first law of thermodynamics
-energy out must equal energy in
-energy changes form
digestion and absorption
nutrients used by the body
byproducts of metabolism
excretion in urine, feces respiration or heat loss
fecal loss
undigested nutrients
Monosaccharides physiological properties
provides energy and is glycemic
Dissacharides physiological properties
provides energy, glycemic, increases calcium absorption,
startch physiological properties
provides energy, glycemic, source of SCFA and increases stool output
Hexose
6 carbon and galactose
Pentose
5 carbon arabonose ansd xylose
Glucose
product of photosynthesis, major source of energy in our bodies
Galactose
not normally found in nature alone, normally found in disaccharide lactose
Fructose
commonly found in fruits and used commercially in many beverages
What is the difference between the carbonyl group in a ketone and an aldone
the carbonyl group that corresponds to ketone is connected to two non hydrogen groups, and aldone is connected to one hydrogen and one non hydrogen group.
what does aldehyde do
it preserves
what does ketone do
it removes
Glucose in plants
aldohexose
basic unit of starch and main storage
Fructose in plants
the main ketohexose of nutritional signifigance
fructose mainly occurs in green plants, honey, fruits and flowers
component of sucrose (a disaccharide) and Fructans (polysaccaharides) in plants
Glucose in animals
-main product of starch digestion in the Gi tract of non ruminants
- the predominant hexose in blood of healthy mammals
Fructose in Animals
-typically low or negligible and a minor sugar in the fetal fluids of humans, dogs and cats
-in contrast fructiose is present in large amounts in semen of males and fetal fluid of ungulates (cattle, sheep and pigs) and whales
Disaccharides
-consists of two units of monosacchatides linked via a glycosidic bond
-one water molecule is eliminated
-carbon gets fixed into either an alpha or beta configuration
maltose confirmation
they have alpha-bonds that are shaped in a v and is made up of two glucose molecules
Sucrose confirmaytion
alpha bonds and is both glucose and fructose
lactose confirmation
beta bonda and made up of galactose and glucose
Lactose Intolerance
Normal-lactase breaks it down into glucose which the animal uses and galactose which the gut microbiome uses
Lactose Intolerance-the lactose goes to the hindgut which is food for the microciome in which they consume it and it creates a lot of gas
Sucrose
-a combination of an alpha bonded D glucose and a beta bonded D-fructose
-a disaccharide
-present in larger amounts than monosaccharides in herbage and likely increases during the day because of photosynthesis
Homopolysaccharides in plants
-polysaccharides consist of a single type of many monosaccharide molecules joined through glycosidic linkages
-starch, glycogen and cellulose
-cellulose and other beta sugars van be extensively digested by bacterial enzymes
Starch in plants
-major homopolysaccharide
-grains, seeds may contain up to 70% on an as fed basis
-a mixture of amylose (30% of starch) and amylopectin (70%)
Cellulose in plants
major structural component of cell walls
-most abandont carbohydrate on the plannet
-homopolysaccharide
-linear polymer of glucose units with b(1-4 bonds)
-insoluable and ondigestible by mammalian digestive enzymes
Heteropolysaccharides in Plants
-mix of 5c and 6c sugars
-polysaccharides yield more than one component on hydrolysis
hemicellulose
consitiuents in clude xylose, arabinose, urionic acid, glucose and galactose
-more digestible than cellulose
Pectin
contains galacturonic acid with arabinose, glucose and xylose
Homopolysaccharides in animals
-polysaccharides consisting of a single type of monosaccharide molecules joined through glycosidc linkages
-in contrast to plants, monosaccarides can either be D-glucose or N-acetyl-glucosamine
-Glycogen and Chitin the only two known to animals
Glycogen
-structure is similar to amylopectin but higher in degree of branching
-in mammals, birds and fish-stored primarily in the liver and muscle
-primary form of carbs in mammals body
-major form of storage in animals
-excess storage causes abnormalities
-limited reserve-can only provide energy
Chitin
-makes up the exoskeleton of insect crustaceans and cell walls of some
-made up of beta glycosidic bonds
-strucutrally strong
-used as surgical thread that biodegradble as a wound heals
-used to wtaer proof paper and retain moisture in cosmetics and lotions
Reduction
addition of H2 (mannose to mannitol)
Oxidation
Ketose (-C–O) to aldose (-CHO)
Esterification
OH group of carb reacts with a COOH group of a fatty acid to form ester
Research Bytes Lactic Acid
lactic acid does not cause soreness
-lactate is only produced in certain situations
-low oxygen (pyruvate->lactate)
Stage 1 of glycolysis
-prep stage
primes glucose molecules into whats usable
-utilizes energy to produce sugared energy
Stage 2 of Glycolosis
-releases energy
-produces 6 atp
Moles in NAD and NADH
1 mole=3 ATP
Moles in FAD and FADH
1 mole=2 atp
Glycolosis Net Gain of ATP
Input=2 ATP
Produces=4 ATP
Net Gain =8 ATP
Glycolosis and TCA Cycle
produces
2 atp
4 CO2
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Glucose to Glycogen
glycogenesis
glycogen to glucose
glycogenolysis
Pyruvate to glucose
gluconeogenesis
Glucose to pyruvate
glycolysis
Fate of absorbed glucose
-first priority is formation of glycogen in liver to store in muscle
-oxidation to form energy
-excess converted to fat and stored as fat in adipose tissue
Exergonic
when delta G is negative
releases energy
favorable to proceed
Endergonic
when delta g is positive
-consumes energy
what type of reactions are anabolism
synthetic and endergonic
WHat type of reactions are catabolism
exergonic and cataholic
How does H2 play a prominent role in energy metabolism
during catabolism, H2 is transferred from glucose receptors
the H2 receptors are oxidized in the mitochondria to release ATP
Metabolism research bytes
-microbes chew on cellulose abd break them down
volitle fatty acids are the main sources of energy in ruminants
ATP in the body
-use atp to both create glucose but to also break it down
-ATP is not stored in the body so it is readily made on demand
Release of heat
-energy loss
-integral part of maintenance
-the inefficiency factor of nutrient use
Second Law of Thermodynamics
- no energy transfer is 100% efficient
-all forms of energy are convertible to heat
Metabolism definition
sum total of all biochemical reactions
Metabolic Rate Definition
-how fast ‘fuels’ are broken down to keep cells functioning
-)2 consumed or Co2 produced per unit of time
How much energy goes towards just simply keeping the animal alive
over 50%
Why does lower mass = higher BMR
-larger surface area
-they lose heat faster thus it requires more energy to maintain internal temperature
Basic Metabolic Rate Definition
-also reffered to as fasting catabolism
-energy expended in fasted animal
-measured by heat production
How to asses BMR
-animal must be awake
-complete physical and mental rest
-post absorptive state (not actively digesting food)
-thermoneutral environment
How is surface area used to measure BMR
-heat loss is proportional to body temp and the surface area is the major factor that determines heat loos\
Kleibers ‘surface law”
heat loss is proportional to 3/4 power of body weighty
BW^0.75=metabolic body size
What happens when you compare BMR per kilogram compares to when you raise BW to 0.75
the variability decreases greatly
Why do we measure body weight
predict energy requirements more accurately
allows us to estimate feed intake more accurately
allows us to compare across species
Sloths
-slowest metabolism of any non-hibernating animal and since they are so slow it reduces competitiomn
-they defecate on the ground about once a week and then go straight back up the tree
Hepatic Portal Vein
drains all the nutrients from the gut to the liver
The absorptive state
the period of time during and following a meal
The absorptive state nutrients
-GI tract is the main source of nutrients that enter the blood and lymph
-liver regulates circulating levels of glucose
-usually hyperglycemia and lipemia
-storage of excess fuel as glycogen or triglycerides
-amino acids then enter the liver and are used to build proteins, CHO and lipids
The Postabsorptive state
the period between meals
-minimal absorption from the GI tract
-energy needs met by fuels in body reserves
What are the three major fuel sources in the post absorptive state
-Hepatocytes-glycogenolysis
-adipocytes-lipolysis-b-oxidation and TCA cycle
-gluconeogenesis
-
What is the difference between glucogenesis and gluconeogenesis
glucogenesis is getting glucose form carb sources and gluconeogenesis is getting glucose from non carb sources
Why is the brain an exception to the absorptive/post absorptive states
FA unable to pass the blood-brain barrier
In prolonged fasting brain adapts to ketones as an energy source
Red Blood Cells
-Lack mitochondria (so no TCA and ETC) have to have glucose as glucose
-derive all their ATP from glycolysis
Oxidation of Fatty Acids in the Postabsorptive state (gluconeogenesis)
undergo beta oxidation and enter TCA as acetyl coa
Oxidation of Lactic Acid in the Postabsorptive state (gluconeogenesis)
anaerobic metabolism
Oxidation of Amino Acids in the Postabsorptive state (gluconeogenesis)
converted either to pyruvate or acetly coA
Oxidation of Ketone Bodies in the Postabsorptive state (glucoseneogenesis)
hepatocytes convert FA to ketone bodies( used by heart kidneys and other tissues for ATP production)
Insulin in glucose homeostasis
synthesized by the pancreas (beta cells)
stimulated by increased glucose
-increases glucose storage
shuts down gluconeogenesis
shuts down glycogeoysis
Anti-Aging Drug for dogs
-slows down metabolism to prevent the constant death of cells without the ability to regenerate them.
Glucagon in glucose homeostasis
-synthesized by the pancreas (alpha cells)
-stimulated by a reduction in glucose
-increases glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Epinephrine in glucose homeostasis
-synthesized by the adrenal gland
-rapid glycogenolysis-“flight or fight” situations
Blood glucose levels in animals trends
cows have the lowest and llamas have the highest. Genrally livestock like cows sheep and goats have it lower but horses and pigs have it higher.
Blood glucose levels with high glucose levels
Stimulus: blood glucose level rises
-beta cells of the pancreases then release insulin into the blood
-body cells take up more glucose and the liver takes glucose and stores it as glycogen
Blood glucose levels with low glucose levels
stimulus:blood glucose levels fall
-alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon into the blood
-liver breaks down glycogen and releases it into the blood
Tissues that facilitate glucose uptake
-skeletal and cardiac muscle
-adipose tissue
-mammary
-liver
Energy Metabolism in Non-Ruminants
Abomasum-Digestive Enzyms
Small Intestine-GLucose
Hind Gut-Microbial Enzymes
Fermentation-SFCA
Then lastly absorption
Energy Metabolism in Ruminants
Feed Nutrients
Rumen-Microbial Enzymes
Rumen-SCFA
Abomasum-Digestion Enzymes
Small Intestine: Protein-Feed and Microbial
Hind Gut-Microbial Enzymes
Fermentation-SCFA
Rumen-Fermentation Vat
-Requires Anaereobic Environment
-Diverse Microbes
-Animal Provides housing and feed (cellulose)
-microbes provide SCFA and Protein
SCFA
major source of metabolizable energy
Microbes
major source of metabolizable proteins
Acetic Acid
-lipogenic
-has 2 carbons and a carboxyl group
Butyric Acid
-lipogenic
-has 4 carbons and a carboxyl group
Proprionic Acid
-glucogenic
-has 3 carbons
What is the difference between acetitc acid and acetate
their is no more hydorgen on the oh group
What is antoine levoiser famous for
Linking the creation of energy to the transfer of food and oxygen into heat and water
Which of the following is not a carbohydrate?
Question 2 Answer
a.
Glucose
b.
Cellulose
c.
Lignin
d.
Starch
Lignin
Which of these disaccharides has a beta glycosidic bond?
a.Lactose
b.
Maltose
c.
Sucrose
d.
Trehalose
lactose
The First Law of Thermodynamics:
Question 4 Answer
a.
states that energy and/or matter is conserved
b.
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
c.
is also knwn as the Law of Conservation of Mass
d.
all of the above are true
all of the above are true
In a study covered during the Research Bytes on Monday (Aug 26), which combination of the sugar substitutes was found to impair the glycemic response of healthy individuals?
Saccharin and sucralose
The inefficiency of nutrient metabolism is related to the producion of:
heat
Nutrients can be classified as either dispensable or indispensable. The difference is that:
an indispensable nutrient must be supplied in the diet.
Which of the following is NOT a nutrient:
a.
Energy
b.
Proteins
c.
Water
d.
Carbohydrates
e.
Vitamins and Minerals
energy
Animals can store excess energy as:
Question 9 Answer
a.
Starch
b.
Glycogen
c.
Triglyceride
d.
Both ‘B’ and ‘C’
e.
Both ‘A’ and ‘B’
d
Both plant and animal cells:
Question 10 Answer
a.
Have a well defined cell nucleus that houses chromosomes
b.
Have a permeable cell membrane
c.
Contain mitochondria
d.
All of the above
all of the above
The second law of thermodynamics states:
energy transfer is not 100% efficient
Whats a unique feature about Sloths?
a.
they are capable of lowering their metabolism at extreme temperatures
b.
the feed they consume remains in their GI tract for extended periods of time, up to 50 days
c.
they rarely defecate and when they do they come to the bottom of the trees
d.
all of the above are unique features
all of the above
Conversion of glycogen to glucose is referred to as:
glycogenolysis
In class we used the body weights of animals to this power to calculate their metabolic body size:
b.
BW0.75
Which of the following represents the carbonyl group and determines whether a carbohydrate is an aldose or ketose?
Question 5 Answer
a.
CHO
b.
OH
c.
C=O
d.
CH2O
c
The glycolytic pathway i.e. breakdown of glucose, results in
generation of ATP
b.
formation of pyruvate
c.
generation of reducing equivalents
Animals expend a majority of their dietary energy expenditure towards:
maintenance
During metabolism, reactions that require the input of energy are referred to as:
endergonic
A structural homopolysaccharide made of repeating units of glucose is:
cellulose
