EXAM #2 Flashcards
Lymphatic system functions:
1. collects _ _ from tissues, circulates it through the lymphatic vessels, and delivers it to the _ system
- interstitial fluids
- cardiovascular
Lymphatic system functions:
2. contains cells. tissues, and organs that participate in the _ mechanisms protecting the body against disease
defense
Lymph - fluid in the lymph vessels:
- interstitial fluid is collected and returned to _ by lymph vessels
veins
Lymph - fluid in the lymph vessels:
- interstitial fluid is produced at the capillary beds when the water and small solutes of plasma are _ _ of capillaries into tissues but large _ remain in plasma
- forced out
- proteins
Lymph - forces in play at capillary beds:
Blood pressure (capillary hydrostatic pressure)
- force that _ water and solutes _ from plasma to interstitial spaces
- pushes
- out
Lymph - forces in play at capillary beds:
Osmotic pressure - _ force
diffusion
Lymph - forces in play at capillary beds:
Osmotic pressure - diffusion force
- force that _ water out of interstitial fluids across capillary walls _ _
- pulls
- into plasma
Lymph - forces in play at capillary beds:
Osmotic pressure - diffusion force
- average of _ mm Hg in plasma
25
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
_ occurs on arterial side of capillary beds when blood pressure is higher (~35 mm Hg) than osmotic pressure (~ 25 mm Hg)
filtration
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
Filtration = water and solutes are _ _
pushed out
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
_ occurs on venous side of capillary beds where blood pressure is less (~18 mm Hg) than osmotic pressure (~25 mm Hg)
reabsorption
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
Reabsorption = water and small solutes are drawn _ _ the capillaries from the interstitial fluid
back into
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
Occurs on the venous side of capillary beds
reabsorption
Lymph - capillary filtration and reabsorption:
Occurs on arterial side of capillary beds
filtration
Lymph:
The difference between blood pressure pushing fluids and osmotic pressure pulling fluids in
Net filtration pressure
Lymph:
Capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP) (blood pressure) pushing fluids out
net hydrostatic pressure
Lymph:
Blood colloidal osmotic pressure (BCOP) pulling water in
net osmotic pressure
Lymph:
Net filtration =
BP - OP
Lymph:
NFP on arterial side = _ - _
35 mm Hg - 25 mm Hg
Lymph:
NFP on arterial side
- _ liters per day filtered out into interstitial space
24
Lymph:
NFP on venous side = _ - _
18 mm Hg - 25 mm Hg
Lymph:
NFP on venous side
- _ liters per day reabsorbed from interstitial space
20.4
Lymph ~ _ collected as lymph
3.6 liters/day
Lymph - Disturbance of forces affects levels of interstitial fluids by:
- due to dehydration, hemorrhage
recall of fluids
Lymph - Disturbance of forces affects levels of interstitial fluids by:
- abnormal accumulation of fluids
edema
Lymph - Disturbance of forces affects levels of interstitial fluids by:
- Edema at an injury site - swelling
- tissue osmotic pressure _ _ if capillary is broken and plasma proteins leak out
- Blood osmotic pressure is _ than normal
- goes up
- lower
Lymph - Disturbance of forces affects levels of interstitial fluids by:
- Edema in starvation
- blood osmotic pressure _ _ because liver makes _ blood proteins
- goes down
- fewer
Lymphatic system:
Defense mechanisms of the body
- protect body from pathogens (disease producing organisms)
- protect body from foreign substances (toxins, pollens)
- protect body from abnormal cells of the body (cancer, virus infected cells)
Lymphatic system:
Defense mechanisms of the body
- prevent or slow entry of harmful substance
- detect and destroy harmful substances in the body, regardless of identity
non-specific defenses (innate)
Lymphatic system:
Defense mechanisms of the body
- cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune response by lymphocytes
- identity of substance determines response
specific defenses (adaptive)
Lymphatic system:
Defense mechanisms of the body
- Both _ _ and _ _ are needed to provide adequate resistance to disease
- non-specific defenses (innate)
- specific defenses (adaptive)
Lymphatic system:
Defense mechanisms of the body
- specific defenses (adaptive) cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune response by _
lymphocytes
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses
- physical barriers keep hazardous organisms _ of body
outside
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - physical barriers
- intact skin
- mucous membranes
mechanical barriers
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - physical barriers
- tears
-saliva
-urine
flushing of surfaces
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - physical barriers
- sebum, perspiration
- digestive secretions, mucus
secretions
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - 3 physical barriers
- mechanical barriers (skin)
- flushing of surfaces (tears)
- secretions (sweat)
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses
- types of phagocytes
- monocyte/macrophage
- neutrophils and eosinophils
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - phagocytes
- location
in lymphoid diffuse tissue, spleen and nodes
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - phagocytes
- location in bloodstream and tissues
migrate out of bloodstream at sites of infection or injury
Lymphatic system:
Non-specific defenses - phagocytes
- _ _ _ cellular debris and pathogens
engulf and destroy
Constant _ of tissues by natural killer cells
monitoring
_ respond to
- foreign cell surfaces markers in cell membrane of foreign cells
- vital markers on virus-infected cells
- tumor-specific markers on neoplastic cells
NK cells
Nk cells release _ by exocytosis causing _ of foreign and abnormal cells
- perforins
- lysis
Non-specific defenses:
Inflammation
- Damaged cells release prostaglandins which activate _ _ and pain receptors
mast cells
Non-specific defenses:
Inflammation
- _ _ release
Mast cells
Non-specific defenses:
Inflammation
- Capillaries _and become more _
- Increased blood flow produces redness and warmth in the tissues
- Increased permeability causes swelling (edema)
- dilate
- permeable
Non-specific defenses:
Inflammation
- Phagocytic cells (neutrophils and macrophages) are attracted by _ and _
- Help destroy pathogens and remove cellular debris
- prostaglandins
- histamines
Non-specific defenses:
Fever
- maintenance of body temperature above _
37.2 degrees celsius (99 deg F)
Non-specific defenses:
Fever
- _ reset the body’s “thermostat” and raise body temperature
- Pathogens, toxins, antigen-antibody complexes
- Interleukin-1 from activated macrophages
pyrogens
Non-specific defenses:
Fever
- High temperatures can inhibit some pathogens
- _ proteins
denature
Non-specific defenses:
Fever
- High temperatures increase metabolic rate in body cells
- _ activity of phagocytes, repair of damaged tissue
accelerate
Non-specific defenses:
Interferons
- small proteins released by
- activated lymphocytes
- activated macrophages
- virally infected cells
Lymphoid organs, tissues and vessels functions:
- _ of body fluids to trap microorganisms and detect signs of tissue infections
- in some cases, germinal sites for maturation of lymphocytes
filtration
Lymphatic network of vessels:
- Right and left lymphatic ducts return lymph to right and left _
subclavian veins
Lymphatic network of vessels:
- Lymphatic vessels carry lymph from tissues back to the _ system
venous
Lymphatic network of vessels:
- Lymphatic vessels contain _ to keep lymph flowing toward heart
valves
Lymphatic network of vessels:
- Lymph is moved as _ _ _ _ by movement of nearby muscles (same mechanism as blood flow in veins)
lymph vessels are squeezed
Lymphoid organs:
- _ is located behind sternum in anterior mediastinum - larger during _
- thymus
- childhood
Lymphoid organs:
- _ is the site for production of _ which are responsible for cell-mediated immune response
- thymus
- T-lymphocytes
Lymphoid organs:
What is responsible for cell-mediated immune response
T-lymphocytes
Lymphoid organs:
- _ uses filtration of _ to trap microorganisms & detect signs of tissue infections
- lymph nodes
- lymph
Lymphoid organs:
- Large nodes are located at junction of smaller lymph vessels with central trunks
- Enlargement usually indicates inflammation in tissues of that region
- “swollen glands”
lymph nodes
Lymphoid organs:
- _ uses filtration of _ to trap microorganisms & detect signs of tissue infections
- Removal of abnormal cells and other blood
components
- spleen
- blood
Lymphoid organs:
- Largest lymphoid organ, located to left of the stomach
spleen
Lymphoid tissue:
_ lymphatic tissues and lymphoid nodules
Diffuse
Lymphoid tissue:
- Located under mucosal layers of all passageways that _ _ _ _
- Functions to trap microorganisms & detect signs of tissue infections in mucosal layers
Lymphoid tissue
- Reproductive - Respiratory
- Urinary - Digestive
open to the outside
Diffuse Lymphoid tissue:
- collections of _
nodules
Diffuse Lymphoid tissue:
Collections of nodules
- appendix
- Tonsils (2 _, 1 _, 2 _)
- 2 palatine
- 1 pharyngeal
- 2 lingual
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Protect against _ _
particular threats
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Depend upon the activation of _ & _ _
- B & T lymphocytes
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Depend upon the activation of B & T lymphocytes
- Activation causes _ _ and large increase in population of B & T lymphocytes specific for that pathogen or abnormal cell
- Activation is multiple step, complex process to provide _
- cell division
- control
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Attack abnormal cells
Cytotoxic T-cells
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- activate B cells and stimulate Tc cells
Helper T-cells
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Types of T-cells
- cytotoxic T-cells
- Helper T-cells
- Suppressor (regulatory) T-cells
Defense mechanisms of the body:
Specific defenses (immune response)
- Differentiate into plasma cells which produce and secrete antibodies
B cells
Specific defenses B & T lymphocyte activation:
- activated by contact with _
antigens
Specific defenses B & T lymphocyte activation:
- _ = chemical targets that stimulate immune response
- Most are foreign proteins
- some lipids, polysaccharides and nucleic acids can also be antigenic
antigens
Specific defenses B & T lymphocyte activation:
- Each lymphocyte can respond to only _ _ _
one unique antigen
T cells are activated by exposure to an _
antigen
T cells are activated by exposure to an antigen:
- Antigen must be presented on cell _ of human cell
surface
T cells are activated by exposure to an antigen:
- _ body cells such as cancer cells or virus infected cell
- Antigens displayed on cell membrane
abnormal
T cells are activated by exposure to an antigen:
- Invading pathogens such as bacteria or viruses or eukaryotic parasites
- Digested by _
* Fragments (antigens) displayed on phagocyte cell membrane T cells are activated by exposure to an antigen
phagocytes
_ glycoproteins (Major Histocompatibility
Complex)
- Display antigens to mark cell for immune system recognition
MHC
Antigen presentation by MHC
glycoprotein:
- Antigen-glycoprotein combination appears on a _ _
cell membrane
Antigen presentation by MHC
glycoprotein:
- T-cells _ _ _ _ are activated upon contact with MHC-antigen complex
specific for the antigen
Found in membranes of nucleated body cells
Class I MHC proteins
Class I MHC proteins:
- Pick up small peptides in cell and carry them to the _
surface
Class I MHC proteins:
- T cells ignore normal peptides
- _ _ or viral proteins activate T cells to
destroy cell
abnormal peptides
In cell membranes of B lymphocytes
Class II MHC proteins
Class II MHC proteins:
- In cell membranes of _ (Antigen-presenting cells)
- Present foreign antigens
- Bacteria, parasites, chemicals, etc.
phagocytes
Also called cluster of differentiation markers
In T cell membranes
CD markers
CD markers:
- Found on Cytotoxic T cells and regulatory T cells
- Respond to antigens on class I MHC proteins
CD 8
CD markers:
CD 8
- Found on _ _ and regulatory T cells
cytotoxic T-cells
CD markers:
CD 8
- Respond to antigens on _ _ _ proteins
class I MHC
CD markers:
- Found on helper T-cells
- Respond to antigens on class II MHC proteins
CD 4 markers
CD markers:
CD 4
- Found on _ _
helper T-cells
CD markers:
CD 4
- Respond to antigens on _ _ _ proteins
class II MHC
Nonspecific Defenses:
_ trigger the production of antiviral proteins that interfere with viral reproduction inside cells
Interferons
Nonspecific Defenses:
Interferons trigger the production of antiviral proteins that interfere with _ _ inside cells
viral reproduction
How is filtration pressure impacted by dehydration?
Filtration pressure (FP) decreases due to increase in osmotic pressure (OP)
Nonspecific Defenses:
Complement system
- chain reaction involving _ _ _ _
~11 plasma complement proteins (C)
Nonspecific Defenses:
Complement system
- Destroy target cell membranes by creating _
pores
Nonspecific Defenses:
Complement system
- stimulate _
- Attract phagocytes & enhance _
- inflammation
- phagocytosis
Nonspecific Defenses:
Complement system
- creates a cell with a hole (pore) which causes fluid to rush in and _
lyse (explode)
Non specific immune defense includes all but which of the following?
- fever,
- natural killer cells
- phagocytes
- antibodies
antibodies
How do natural killer cells help fight cancer?
They release perforin causing the cancer cell to lyse
True about _ proteins
- found in all cells; present antigens if cell is abnormal
- involved primarily with the activation of cytotoxic CD8 T-cells
MHC I
_ = abnormal - gets destroyed - “death” killer T’s
_ = doing its job
- class I MHC
- class II MHC
3 Major types of T lymphocytes
- cytotoxic T cells
- Helper T cells
- Regulatory (suppressor) T cells
Major types of T lymphocytes:
- cell-mediated immune response
- attack abnormal body cells
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
Major types of T lymphocytes:
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
- cell-mediated immune response
- attack abnormal _ _
body cells
Major types of T lymphocytes:
- activate B cells & stimulate cell division of other T cells
- Attack foreign cells and antigens
Helper T cells (TH)
Major types of T lymphocytes:
Helper T cells (TH)
- activate B cells & stimulate cell division of other T cells
- Attack _ & _
foreign cells & antigens
Major types of T lymphocytes:
- control or moderate immune response of T and B lymphocytes
Regulatory (Suppressor) T cells
Major types of T lymphocytes:
Regulatory (Suppressor) T cells
- control or moderate immune response of _
T and B lymphocytes
Activate Helper T cells _ which then activates _
- first
- B cells
Cell-mediated Immunity
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
- _ _ cells specific for many different antigens present in blood and lymphoid tissues waiting for _
- inactive TC
- activation
Cell-mediated Immunity
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
- Activated by binding to _ – antigen complex on abnormal cells
Class I MHC
Cell-mediated Immunity
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
- Have _ marker which responds to Class I MHC proteins
CD 8
Cell-mediated Immunity
Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
- Have CD 8 marker which responds to _ proteins
Class I MHC
Activation of TC cells initiates _ _ _ against cells with that specific antigen
cell-mediated immune response
Activated Cytotoxic T cells undergo rapid cell division to produce:
- Active Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells)
- Memory TC cells (inactive TC cells)
Activated Cytotoxic T cells undergo rapid cell division to produce:
- seek out and destroy abnormal cells by releasing destructive chemicals
Active Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells)
Activated Cytotoxic T cells undergo rapid cell division to produce:
- protect against previously encountered antigens and may provide lifetime protection against some pathogens
Memory TC cells (inactive TC cells)
To destroy target cell, an active cytotoxic T cell may:
- Release _ and activate genes in target cell to trigger apoptosis
- Secrete poisonous lymphotoxin
cytokines
To destroy target cell, an active cytotoxic T cell may:
- Release _ to destroy target cell’s plasma membrane
perforins
Helper T cells (TH cells)
- Activated by binding to _ – antigen complex
Class II MHC
Helper T cells (TH cells)
- Have _ marker which responds to _ proteins
- CD 4
- class II MHC
Helper T cells (TH cells)
- Have CD 4 marker which responds to class II MHC proteins
- Activation of TH cell stimulates cell division to produce _ & _
active TH cells & memory TH cells
Helper T cells (TH cells)
Active Helper T cells release chemicals (cytokines) that:
- Activate _
- Stimulate _
- B cells
- Tc cells
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins consisting of:
Two parallel pairs of _ _
polypeptide chains
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins consisting of:
Two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains
- _ region and _ region
Constant region & variable region
Antibody structure:
Antigen _ on two tops of the Y
binding site
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins consisting of:
Two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains
- _ region determines class
Constant region
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins consisting of:
Two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains
- _ region determines specificity
variable region
The 5 classes of antibodies
- IgG
- IgE
- IgD
- IgM
- IgA
Classes of antibodies:
Resistance against many viruses, bacteria, and bacterial toxins
- small, can cross placenta barrier
- * main player
- mounting a full attack
IgG
Classes of antibodies:
Resistance against many viruses, bacteria, and bacterial toxins
IgG
Classes of antibodies:
Accelerates local inflammation
IgE
Classes of antibodies:
Accelerates local inflammation
- allergies
- inappropriate reaction
- embed in mast cells – heparin
IgE
Classes of antibodies:
Found on the surface of B cells
IgD
Classes of antibodies:
First type secreted after antigen arrives
IgM
Classes of antibodies:
First type secreted after antigen arrives
- 1st!
- Big (anti-A, anti-B)
- coming down with in
IgM
Classes of antibodies:
Primarily found in glandular secretions
- sweat, tears, breast milk
IgA
Respiration:
_ _ = Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
- air moving into and out of lungs
- Controlled by voluntary muscle and smooth muscle
External respiration
Respiration:
External respiration = Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
- air moving into and out of lungs
- Controlled by _ muscle and _ muscle
- voluntary
- smooth
Respiration:
_ _ = Cellular respiration
- Use of O2 & production of CO2 in cells
Internal respiration
Respiration:
Internal respiration = Cellular respiration
- Use of _ & production of _ in cells
- O2
- CO2
Functions of the respiratory tract in pulmonary ventilation:
- Large respiratory surface for _ of gasses
between lungs and blood
exchange
Functions of the respiratory tract in pulmonary ventilation:
- Conduction of air into & out of lungs
- Requires assistance of thoracic and abdominal muscles
- _ air passing to and from the alveoli
conditioning
Respiratory epithelium lines inner surface of respiratory passageways
Respiratory Mucosa
Respiratory Mucosa:
Respiratory epithelium lines inner surface of respiratory passageways
- _ vascularized
- _ epithelium
- _ producing cells
- highly
- ciliated
- mucus
Respiratory Mucosa:
Helps _, _, & _ incoming air
warm, filter, and humidify
Respiratory Mucosa:
- Provides _ system to keep foreign matter out of alveoli
“respiratory defense”
_ is from larynx to bronchi
trachea
Trachea:
_ controlled by C-shaped tracheal cartilages and by smooth muscle
diameter
Trachea:
Primary bronchi and secondary bronchi
- Walls contain cartilage & smooth muscle
- _ control of smooth muscle
ANS
Respiratory tract:
- Walls are smooth muscle, no cartilage
- Dilation and constriction controlled by ANS
Bronchioles
Bronchioles:
- Asthma results from too much _
bronchoconstriction
Bronchioles terminate in multiple _ (air sacks)
alveoli
Bronchioles terminate in multiple alveoli (air sacks)
- Respiratory exchange surfaces
- _ surrounding each alveolus
capillaries
Cells of the alveolar wall
- Epithelial cells (pneumocyte I)
- Septal (pneumocyte II) cells
Cells of the alveolar wall:
Alveolar macrophages
- Patrol epithelium and engulf foreign particles
Epithelial cells (pneumocyte I)
Cells of the alveolar wall:
- Produce surfactant – reduces surface tension of water
- Lack of surfactant can cause respiratory
distress syndrome
Septal (pneumocyte II) cells
Cells of the alveolar wall:
Septal (pneumocyte II) cells
- Produce _ – reduces surface tension of water
- Lack of surfactant can cause _
- surfactant
- respiratory distress syndrome
Gas exchange between alveolus & blood:
CO2 and O2 move by _
diffusion
Gas exchange between alveolus & blood:
CO2 and O2 move by diffusion
- Cross the _
“respiratory membrane”
Gas exchange between alveolus & blood:
_ epithelium
* Endothelial cell lining an adjacent capillary
* Fused basal laminae
Simple squamous
Gas exchange between alveolus & blood:
“Respiratory membrane” is _ in thickness
~0.5μm
Response to an antigen:
Primary response
- Requires activation of the _ number of _ B & T cells specific for that antigen
- small
- inactive
Response to an antigen:
Primary response
- Activated B & T cells undergo many cell divisions to build up large populations of cells
targeting that antigen
- Takes about _ weeks to develop
two
Response to an antigen:
Secondary response
- Requires activation of the _ number of inactive B & T memory cells specific for that
antigen
large
Response to an antigen:
Secondary response
- Activated B & T cells undergo only a few cell divisions to build up large populations of cells targeting that antigen
- Takes only a _ to develop a strong response
few days
Development of active immunity after first exposure (you make memory cells)
Acquired immunity
Acquired immunity:
- Naturally acquired = _
directly exposed
Acquired immunity:
- Induced immunity = via _
vaccination
temporary protection provided by transfer of antibodies from another source
Passive immunity
- Clinical treatment – rabies treatment,
antivenom, etc. (borrowing antibodies) - Fetus and neonate – ABs from mother
Passive immunity
- A malfunction of system that recognizes and destroys “normal” antigens
- Activated B cells make autoantibodies against body cells
Auto-immune Disorders
Auto-immune Disorders: Excessive activity
-_ - insulin-producing cells of pancreas
- Multiple sclerosis - myelin sheaths of axons of CNS
- Celiac disease – bowel tissue after exposure to gluten
- Lupus (systemic lupus erythematosus) - varies
Diabetes, type 1
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Inappropriate or excessive immune response to allergens
Allergies
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
antigens that trigger allergic responses
Allergens
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
most common type of allergic response
Immediate Hypersensitivity (hay fever, mild allergy)
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Immediate Hypersensitivity (hay fever, mild allergy)
- _ produced by activation of IgE antibodies attached to mast cells
- Allergic rhinitis, Hives
inflammation
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
- Circulating allergen affects IgE on mast cells
throughout body
- Causes high levels of histamine release
Anaphylaxis
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Anaphylaxis
- Circulating allergen affects IgE on mast cells
throughout body
- Causes high levels of _ release
histamine
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Anaphylaxis
- Can cause _ making breathing very difficult
bronchial constriction
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
- life threatening extensive peripheral vasodilation leading to fall in blood pressure and circulatory collapse
Anaphylactic shock
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Anaphylactic shock
- life threatening extensive peripheral _ leading to fall in blood pressure and circulatory collapse
vasodilation
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Anaphylactic shock
- Epinephrine (epi-pen) needed to cause _ which causes resistance in blood flow and increases heart rate to normal again
vasoconstriction
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Organ transplantation
- to assess the similarity between the MHC class I & class II proteins of donor & recipient
Tissue typing
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Organ transplantation
- Tissue typing
- to assess the similarity between the _ proteins of donor & recipient
MHC class I & class II
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
- T cells are activated by MHC proteins that appear to be “non-self”
- immune response attacks cells of transplanted graft or organ
Organ rejections
Immune system disorders: Excessive activity
Organ rejections
- _ are activated by MHC proteins that appear to be “non-self”
- immune response attacks cells of transplanted graft or organ
T cells
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
- Disorders of embryologic development of _
- Severe combined immunodeficiency disease
lymphoid tissue
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
- Exposure to _ or _ that damages the immune system
toxins or radiation
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
- _ that suppress immune system
- People with autoimmune breakouts use (Chromes disease)
Drugs
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
- Infection with _ that depresses immune function
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
viruses
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
Retrovirus
- Genetic information is RNA
- Requires reverse transcriptase to replicate
- mutates frequently
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infects _
helper T cells
Immune system disorders: Insufficient activity
Immunodeficiency
Late stage HIV disease is _
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
HIV and AIDS
- Tc and B cell response to pathogens are severely _
depressed
HIV and AIDS
The virus does not cause death _
directly
HIV and AIDS
Death due to _ illnesses such as opportunistic
infections or cancer
- 770 000 people died from HIV-related causes in 2018 and 1.7 million people were newly infected
secondary
Stress and reduced immune response:
- Stress triggers release of _ (corticosteroids) from adrenal gland
glucocorticoid hormones
Stress and reduced immune response:
- _ reduce B & T lymphocyte activity and depress the inflammatory response
- Lowers resistance to disease
- Slows wound healing
Glucocorticoids
Stress and reduced immune response:
Glucocorticoids reduce _ and depress the inflammatory response
B & T lymphocyte activity
A blood test shows a high IgM titer for the measles virus. This indicates that the individual
is just coming down with the measles
Allergic reaction is what type of Ig?
IgE
What factors makes gas diffusion across the respiratory membrane so efficient?
large surface area, many small alveoli (less “space”)
If your alveoli surface area were to be spread out, it would cover the size of a _
tennis court (has a lot of surface area)
Lung tissue is spongy & elastic but has no ability to expand or contract _
on its own
Lungs covered by a two-layered pleura
- Parietal
- Visceral
Lungs covered by a two-layered pleura
- Attaches to the walls of the pleural cavity
Parietal
Lungs covered by a two-layered pleura:
- Adheres to surface of the lungs
Visceral
lubrication between the parietal and visceral pleura creates a strong fluid bond
- Keeps lungs expanded
- Pneumothorax leads to collapsed lung
Pleural fluid
Pleural fluid – lubrication between the parietal and visceral pleura creates a strong _
fluid bond
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Air moves in and out of lungs along an _
- High pressure to low pressure
air pressure gradient
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Pressure gradient created by increasing and
decreasing _ of lungs - when one increases, the other decreases
volume
Pulmonary Ventilation:
- Increases & decreases in volume of lungs created by _ of thoracic cavity
changing sizes
Pulmonary Ventilation:
- Increases & decreases in volume of lungs created by changing size of thoracic cavity
- Thoracic and abdominal _ increase or decrease thoracic cavity
muscles
Movement of air depends upon _
- Pressure and volume - inverse relationship
(P=1/V)
- increased pressure = decreased volume
- Volume depends on movement of diaphragm and ribs
Boyle’s Law
Air movement:
Pressure _ between air outside body and air in lungs (intrapulmonary pressure)
difference
Air movement:
Pressure difference between air outside body and air in lungs (intrapulmonary pressure)
- determines _ and rate of airflow in respiratory tract
direction
Air movement:
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
- Volume in thoracic cavity increases
- Pressure therefore decreases
- Air flows in
inhalation
Air movement:
Inhalation
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
- Volume in thoracic cavity _
- Pressure therefore _
- Air flows in
- increases
- decreases
Air movement:
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax
- Volume in thoracic cavity decreases
- Pressure therefore increases
- Air flows out
exhalation
Air movement:
Exhalation
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax
- Volume in thoracic cavity _
- Pressure therefore _
- Air flows out
- decreases
- increases
Air movement:
Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax
Exhalation
Air movement:
Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
Inhalation
Inhalation is _
always active
Exhalation can be _
active or passive
Quiet breathing
- Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles for inhaling
Passive exhaling (sleeping)
Forced breathing
- Accessory muscles assist with inhaling and
exhaling
Active exhaling (running)
External intercostal muscles move _ during breathing
up & out (inhalation)
Internal intercostal muscles move _
down & in (forced/active breathin)
Pulmonary Ventilation:
_ pressure gradient in quiet breathing
small
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Atmospheric pressure at sea level= _
760 mm Hg
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Inspiration - increase in volume _ pressure inside airways of lungs to 759 mm Hg
reduces
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Increase in volume reduces pressure inside airways of lungs to 759 mm Hg
Inspiration
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Expiration - decrease in volume _ pressure inside airways of lungs to 761 mm Hg
increases
Pulmonary Ventilation:
Decrease in volume increases pressure inside airways of lungs to 761 mm Hg
Expiration
Pulmonary Ventilation:
_ can be produced with forced breathing
Large pressure gradient
Higher elevation = _
less pressure (less air molecules)
air volume moved during one respiratory cycle under resting conditions
Resting tidal volume
Resting tidal volume - _ at rest
500 ml
maximum amount of air that can be moved
during one respiratory cycle
- Varies based on physical size of lungs and lung compliance (expandibility)
Vital capacity
Vital capacity - ~_ ml – _ ml
~3400 ml – 4800 ml
Total lung capacity is _ plus _, air that remains in lungs after maximal exhalation
- vital capacity
- residual volume
vital capacity plus residual volume, air that remains in lungs after maximal exhalation
Total lung capacity
Total lung capacity - _ ml - _ ml
~4500 ml - 6000 ml
To meet oxygen demands of body:
Vary the number of _ per minute
- Increase or decrease _
- breaths
- respiratory rate
To meet oxygen demands of body:
Vary the _ moved per breath
- Increase or decrease _
- amount of air
- tidal volume
To meet oxygen demands of body
- vary the number of breaths per minute
- vary the amount of air moved per breath
Respiratory centers of the brainstem:
- always active
- stimulates inhalation muscles
DRG Inspiratory Center
Respiratory centers of the brainstem:
- Active only during forced breathing
- Stimulates accessory muscles for active
exhalation, assist with inhalation
VRG Inspiratory and Expiratory Centers
Respiratory centers of the brainstem:
- adjusts depth of breathing
Apneustic Center
Respiratory centers of the brainstem:
- adjusts rate of breathing
Pneumotaxic Center
4 Respiratory centers of the brainstem
- DRG Inspiratory Center
- VRG Inspiratory and Expiratory Centers
- Apneustic Center
- Pneumotaxic Center
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
Basic respiratory rate can be modified in
response to input from _ receptors
to maintain homeostatic levels of O2 and
CO2
sensory
_ reflexes dominate
CO2
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
CO2 reflexes dominate
- CO2 receptors are _ than receptors for O2
more sensitive
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
High levels of PCO2 of arterial blood
- decrease in blood pH (acidosis)
Hypercapnia disorders
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
Hypercapnia disorders
- _ caused by cardiovascular or pulmonary disorders
- Over time, accommodation results in _ of CO2 receptors, loss of reflex response
- Chronic hypoventilation
- reduced sensitivity
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
- Typically caused by hyperventilation
- abnormally low PCO2 in arterial blood
– rise in blood pH (alkalosis)
Hypocapnia
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
Hypocapnia
- Lower PCO2 causes _ of chemoreceptors
reduced stimulation
Chemoreceptor reflexes:
Hypocapnia
- Respiratory rate _ increase even though PO2 falls dangerously _
- does not
- low
Protective reflexes:
Receptors in epithelium of respiratory tract
- Irritation of larynx, trachea, or bronchi
Coughing
Protective reflexes:
Coughing
1. _ closes at top of trachea
Glottis
Protective reflexes:
Coughing
2. Strong, rapid contraction of intercostal and
abdominal muscles creates _ in lungs
high pressure
Protective reflexes:
Coughing
3. Glottis _
- to remove offending stimulus
opens and air rushes outward
Voluntary control of respiration:
_ consciously (voluntarily) control smooth muscles of respiratory tract
Cannot
Voluntary control of respiration:
Can consciously control _ of breathing
skeletal muscles
Voluntary control of respiration:
Can consciously control skeletal muscles of breathing
- Can temporarily “hold your breath”
- Can be overcome by chemoreceptor reflex –
_ will cause inhalation
high CO2
Voluntary control of respiration:
Can consciously control skeletal muscles of breathing
- Can control _ of breathing
- Important for speaking, singing, etc.
rate and depth
Gas Exchange:
Exchange of gasses by diffusion
- across alveoli - _
- capillary border
Gas Exchange:
Exchange of gasses by diffusion
- across capillary - _
interstitial fluid border
Gas Exchange:
Diffusion in liquids
- _ concentration to _ concentration
high; to low
Gas Exchange:
Diffusion in gasses
- _ pressure to _ pressure
high; to low
Gas Exchange:
Diffusion in gasses
O2 –>
lungs -> blood -> interstitial fluid -> cells
Gas Exchange:
Diffusion in gasses
CO2 –>
cells -> interstitial fluid -> blood -> lungs
Reasons for efficient gas exchange
- Small diffusion distance
- Large surface area of all alveoli
- Differences in partial pressure across blood
air barrier are substantial - O2 and CO2 are lipid soluble
Reasons for efficient gas exchange
- Small diffusion _
- Affected by edema, pneumonia, pulmonary
fibrosis disease, etc.
distance
Reasons for efficient gas exchange
- Large _ of all alveoli
- Reduced in emphysema, etc.
surface area
Efficiency of Gas Exchange
_ in gas concentrations between air and blood
Large differences
Efficiency of Gas Exchange
Large differences in gas concentrations between air and blood
- Affected by changes in concentrations of
_ and _ in the air
- oxygen
- carbon dioxide
Efficiency of Gas Exchange
Large differences in gas concentrations between air and blood
- Affected by changes in air _
pressure
Efficiency of Gas Exchange
Large differences in gas concentrations between air and blood
- Affected by changes in air pressure
– _ air pressure causes _ gas to go into blood
– _ affects air pressure
- high, more
- altitude
Each gas contributes to total pressure in proportion to its relative abundance
Dalton’s law
Pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture
partial pressure
Gas Concentration Measured as Partial Pressure of gasses:
Atmospheric air = _ mm Hg
760
Gas Concentration Measured as Partial Pressure of gasses:
In atmospheric air (760 mm Hg)
- Nitrogen (N2) = _
78.6% (597 mm Hg)
Gas Concentration Measured as Partial Pressure of gasses:
In atmospheric air (760 mm Hg)
- Oxygen (O2) = _
20.9% (20%) (159 mm Hg)
Gas Concentration Measured as Partial Pressure of gasses:
In atmospheric air (760 mm Hg)
- Water vapor (H2O) = _
0.5% (3.7 mm Hg)
Gas Concentration Measured as Partial Pressure of gasses:
In atmospheric air (760 mm Hg)
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) = _
0.04% (0.3 mm Hg)
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Alveolar gas levels
- PO2 of _
100 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Alveolar gas levels
- PCO2 of _
40 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Alveolar gas levels
- PO2 of 100 mm Hg & PCO2 of 40 mm Hg
- Differs from air due to mixing of _ and _
inhaled and residual air
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Arterial Blood gasses
- PO2 of 95 mm Hg & PCO2 of 40 mm Hg
- Blood in systemic circuit arteries and arterioles carrying blood to _
tissues
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Arterial Blood gasses
- PO2 of _
95 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Venous blood gas levels
- PCO2 of _
45 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Oxygenated
- PO2 = _
- PCO2 = _
- 95 mm Hg
- 40 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Deoxygenated
- PO2 = _
- PCO2 = _
- 40 mm Hg
- 45 mm Hg
Greater altitudes have less of which gas in the air?
- O2
- CO2
- N2
- All of them
All of them
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
- Transported in blood as dissolved gas
- Decompression sickness
Nitrogen transport
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Dissolved gas levels in _ insufficient to
meet needs of tissues
- _ provide transport mechanisms for both O2 and CO2 Gas Pickup and Delivery
- plasma
- RBCs
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
- Dissolved gas levels in plasma insufficient to
meet needs of tissues
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen transport
- Carried mainly by RBCs, bound to _
hemoglobin
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen transport
- Carried mainly by RBCs, bound to hemoglobin
– _ heme oxygen-binding sites per Hb
molecule
four
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen transport
- Carried mainly by RBCs, bound to hemoglobin
– Four heme oxygen-binding sites per Hb
molecule
- Number of sites occupied by oxygen measured as _
saturation percentage
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen transport
Hemoglobin – oxygen binding
- Weak bonds – oxygen easily _
dissociates
Gas Pickup and Delivery:
Oxygen transport
- Dissociation rates dependent upon PO2 and _ and _
- pH
- temperature
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
Partial pressure of oxygen - PO2
- Alveolar levels of 100 mmHg gives _ hemoglobin saturation
97.5%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
Partial pressure of oxygen - PO2
- Alveolar levels of 60 mmHg gives _
hemoglobin saturation (high altitudes,
compromised pulmonary ventilation)
90%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
Partial pressure of oxygen - PO2
- Tissue levels of 40 mmHg – hemoglobin
saturation is _ (inactive tissue)
75%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
Partial pressure of oxygen - PO2
- _ tissue levels of 20 mmHg – hemoglobin saturation is 35%
Active
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
PO2 = 100 mm Hg so % saturation = _
97.5%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
PO2 = 40 mm Hg so % saturation = _
75%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation Curve:
PO2 = 20 mm Hg so % saturation = _
35%
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation/Dissociation Curves:
Partial pressure of oxygen - PO2
- Levels of PO2 _ as tissue becomes more active
decreases
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation/Dissociation Curves:
pH level
- More acidity in tissues as they become more
active
Low pH
Oxygen – Hemoglobin Saturation/Dissociation Curves:
Temperature
- Temperatures _ in active tissues
increase
Carbon dioxide transport in blood 3 different ways
- 70% carried as bicarbonate ions
- 23% bound to hemoglobin
- 7% dissolved in plasma
Carbon dioxide transport:
70% carried as bicarbonate ions
- Carbonic _ in RBC
anhydrase enzyme
Carbon dioxide transport:
70% carried as bicarbonate ions
- Carbonic anhydrase enzyme in RBC
- Carbonic acid dissociates into _
- Affects blood levels
bicarbonate ion & hydrogen ion
Carbon dioxide transport:
23% bound to hemoglobin
Carbaminohemoglobin
Decompression sickness occurs when divers ascend too quickly because
N2 comes out of solution and forms bubbles
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Arterial Blood gasses
- PCO2 of _
40 mm Hg
An increase in activity would cause
a decrease in pH and a decrease in oxygen saturation
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Venous blood gas levels
- PO2 of _
40 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Venous blood gas levels
- PO2 of 40 mm Hg & PCO2 of 45 mm Hg
- Blood in systemic circuit venules and veins _ blood from tissues
returning
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Tissue interstitial fluid gas levels
- PO2 of _ in inactive tissue
40 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Tissue interstitial fluid gas levels
- PCO2 of _ in inactive tissue
45 mm Hg
Partial pressure of gasses in body (at sea level):
Tissue interstitial fluid gas levels
- PO2 of less than 20 mm Hg in _
active tissue
