EXAM #1 Flashcards
1
Q
Structures of the body, pure memorization
A
anatomy
2
Q
How the body works, processes
A
physiology
3
Q
- Heart, blood vessels, and blood
- contains nervous tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue and epithelial tissue
A
The cardiovascular system
4
Q
3 main functions of the cardiovascular system
A
- Transport
- Maintenance of homeostasis
- Protection
5
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Transport function
- carries nutrients from _ _ to cells throughout body
A
digestive system
6
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Transport function
- carries _ _ from cells of body to kidneys
A
waste products
7
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Transport function
- carries _ from endocrine glands to target cells
A
hormones
8
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Transport function
- carries _ _: oxygen from lungs to cells and carbon dioxide from cells to lungs
A
respiratory gases
9
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Maintenance of Homeostasis
- Helps maintain normal, balanced function of the body by participating in maintenance of:
1. _ _ by absorbing and redistributing heat
2. _ _ levels
3. _ _ and _ concentrations
A
- body temperature
- body fluid
- pH levels and electrolyte
10
Q
The Cardiovascular System:
Protection function
- Protects body from _ and other pathogens through the _ _ _
- Prevents excess _ _ at injury sites through _ _ _
A
- bacteria, immune system elements
- fluid loss, blood clotting mechanisms
11
Q
What is blood?
- _ _ _
- _ & _ _ (RBC, EBC, platelets) known collectively as the _ _
- Surrounded in _ _ _
A
- Fluid connective tissue
- cells & cell fragments, formed elements
- liquid extracellular matrix (plasma)
12
Q
Characteristics of blood:
Approximately _ of body weight
A
7%
13
Q
Characteristics of blood:
Average of _ liters
A
5
14
Q
Characteristics of blood:
_ liters in smaller adults
A
4-5
15
Q
Characteristics of blood:
_ liters in larger adult
A
5-6
16
Q
Characteristics of blood:
1 liter ~ 1 quart = _
A
2 pints
17
Q
Characteristics of blood:
pH between _ and _
A
7.35 & 7.45
18
Q
Characteristics of blood:
pH is <7.35
A
Acidosis
19
Q
Characteristics of blood:
pH is >7.45
A
Alkalosis
20
Q
pH scale:
Basic = _
Neutral = _
Acidic = _
A
- 14
- 7
- 1
21
Q
Characteristics of blood:
Viscosity - _ _ _ than water
- Blood thicker than water because of soluble proteins
A
5 times greater
22
Q
Components of Blood:
Makes up about 55% of blood volume
A
Plasma
23
Q
Components of Blood:
Makes up about 45% of blood volume
A
Formed elements (RBC, WBC, Platelets)
24
Q
Components of Blood:
The pale yellow fluid that makes up the extracellular matrix
A
Plasma
25
Components of Blood:
Plasma
- _ ~ 92%
- _ _ ~7%
- Ions, nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes ~ _
- water
- plasma proteins
- 1%
26
Components of Blood:
More than 90% of plasma is _
- also contains dissolved plasma proteins & other solutes
water
27
Components of Blood:
Blood cells suspended in the plasma
formed elements
28
Components of Blood:
Formed elements
- _ ~ 99.9%
- _ ~ > .1%
- ~ > .1%
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
29
Components of Blood:
Plasma is very similar to _ _ because water, ions, and small solutes are exchanged across capillary walls
interstitial fluid
30
Components of Blood:
Difference between plasma and interstitial fluid
interstitial fluid has plasma proteins
31
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins (90% synthesized in liver)
- Albumins
- Globulins
- Fibrinogens
32
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins
- 60% of plasma proteins
- Responsible for _ _ of blood
Albumins
- osmotic pressure
33
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins
- ~35% of plasma proteins
- immunoglobulins attack foreign proteins and _
Globulins
- pathogens
34
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins
- Transport _ bind ions, hormones, cholesterol, and other compounds
globulins
35
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins
- clotting proteins
Fibrinogens
36
Components of Blood:
Plasma proteins
- Fibrinogens
- serum = _ after removal of clotting proteins
plasma
37
Erythrocytes
Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
38
Function of Red Blood Cells:
- Transport some _ from tissues to lungs
carbon dioxide
39
Function of Red Blood Cells:
- Transport most _ from lungs to tissues
oxygen
40
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
- slightly less than _ the blood volume
half (~45% average)
41
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
- _ of the formed elements
99.9%
42
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
- _ _ per microliter of blood
4-6 million
43
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
_ new RBCs enter blood stream every second & _ RBCs breakdown every second
- 3 million
- 3 million
44
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
- % of RBCs
- _ obtained by centrifuging blood sample to separate formed elements from plasma
- buffy coat is layer of WBC & platelets
Hematocrit
45
Abundance of Red Blood Cells: Example
Hematocrit of _ means whole blood is 58% plasma & 42% formed elements
42
46
Abundance of Red Blood Cells:
Males have slightly higher _ than females due to more testosterone
hematocrit
47
Structure of Red Blood Cells
- very small, highly specialized cells
- biconcave disc shape
48
Structure of Red Blood Cells:
Very small, highly specialized cells
- when mature have _ and _ other organelles (allows to be small)
no and few
49
Structure of Red Blood Cells:
Very small, highly specialized cells
- densely packed with _
hemoglobin
50
Structure of Red Blood Cells:
Biconcave disc shape
- Provides large surface to volume ratio necessary for _ _ _
- allows RBCs to stack, bend, flex
rapid gas exchange
51
Globular protein, formed from 4 polypeptide subunits (2 alpha & 2 beta)
Hemoglobin (Hb)
52
Hemoglobin (Hb):
- each subunit contains a molecule of _
heme
53
Hemoglobin (Hb):
Heme - Pigment molecule containing ionized iron (Fe2+) which can _ bind an oxygen molecule
- weak bond, easily broken by pressure gradient
reversibly
54
Hemoglobin (Hb):
- Each RBC contains about _ Hb
280 million
55
Hemoglobin (Hb):
- Each RBC can carry over _ molecules of oxygen
a billion
56
Hemoglobin function:
At lungs, where oxygen concentration is high
- hemoglobin _ oxygen
binds
57
Hemoglobin function:
At lungs, where oxygen concentration is high
- _ = bright red in color
oxyhemoglobin
58
Hemoglobin function:
At peripheral tissues, where oxygen concentration is low
- carbon monoxide _ binds to heme iron preventing oxygen from binding
- strong bond, stays for a very long time, blocks out oxygen (O2 cannot compete with CO)
irreversibly
59
Oxygen concentration high in _ and low in _
- lungs
- tissues
60
Hemoglobin disorder:
- most common in people from African descent
sickle-cell anemia
61
Hemoglobin disorder:
- beta chain of Hb is abnormal
- In _ oxygen, Hb molecules interact causing cell to become stiff and curved
low
62
Hemoglobin disorder:
Sickle-cell
- _ _ _ = 1 single gene, normally fine, extreme oxygen deficit can activate
- _ _ _ = active all the time
- sickle-cell trait
- sickle-cell anemia disorder
63
Hemoglobin disorder:
- similar but less common genetic hemoglobin disorder
- most common in people of Mediterranean descent
Thalassemia
64
Blood:
- cells & cell fragments
- approximately 45% of total blood volume
Formed Elements
65
Blood:
Formed Elements
- Red blood cells (RBC) = _
erythrocytes
66
Blood:
Formed Elements
- White blood cells (WBC) = _
leukocytes
67
Blood:
Formed Elements
- Platelets ~ _
thrombocytes
68
Blood: Formed Elements
White blood cells (WBC) = leukocytes are mostly found in _
tissues
69
Blood: Formed Elements
The production of blood cells in red bone marrow (known as myeloid tissue)
Hemopoiesis (hematopoiesis)
70
Pre-fix -cyte means
ex: erythrocyte, leukocyte
cell
71
Blood: Formed Elements
platelets are _ _
cell fragments
72
Blood: Hemopoeisis
All begins with _
hemocytoblasts ( -blasts=build, - cyto=cells/stem cells)
73
Blood: Hemopoeisis
_ in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) that divide to produce
Stem cells
74
Blood: Hemopoeisis
2 main kinds of stem cells in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) that divide to produce
1. myeloid stem cells
2. lymphoid stem cells
75
Blood: Hemopoeisis
A kind of stem cell in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) that divide to produce
- Give rise to RBCs, platelets, and 4 of the 5 types of WBCs
myeloid stem cells
76
Blood: Hemopoeisis
A kind of stem cell in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) that divide to produce
- Become lymphocytes (specialized WBCs)
lymphoid stem cells
77
Blood: Hemopoeisis
_ white blood cells
_ from myeloid stem cells
_ from lymphoid stem cells
- 5
- 4
- 1
78
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Hemocytoblasts divide by mitosis into _ & _
myeloid stem cells & lymphoid stem cells
79
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Lymphoid stem cells result in what kind of white blood cell
lymphocyte
80
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Myeloid stem cells result in what kinds of white blood cells
- basophils
- eosinophils
- neutrophils
- monocytes
81
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Myeloid stem cells result in
- erythrocytes
- platelets
- 4/5 white blood cells
82
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Myeloid stem cells
- _ become platelets
megakarocyte
83
Blood: Hemopoeisis
Myeloid stem cells
- EPO
- ejection of nucleus = _
- then become _
- reticulocyte
- erythrocyte
84
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
1% of circulating RBCs are replaced per day
- about _ _ new RBCs enter bloodstream each second
3 million
85
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
life span = approximately _ days
- travel ~ 700 miles
120 days
86
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
RBCs travel ~ _ per 120 days
700 miles
87
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
RBCs are _ and _ constantly at approximately the same rate
destroyed and replaced
88
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
RBC made by erythropoiesis in _ _ _
red bone marrow
89
Blood: RBC formation and turnovers
RBC destroyed by phagocytosis in _ & _
liver and spleen
90
RBC production called _
- occurs in red bone marrow
erthropoiesis
91
Stages in RBC production
- Hemocytoblast
- Myeloid stem cell
1. Proerythroblast
2-4. erythroblast stages
5-7. reticulocyte
= mature erythrocyte
92
Stages in RBC production
- immature red blood cell,
- ejected nucleus
- enters bloodstream days 5-7
reticulocyte
93
Stages in RBC production
- EPO (erythropoietin)
day 1: proerythroblast
94
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
- adequate supply of _ _ and _ and _ _
- _
- amino acids, vitamins B6 & B12, and folic acid
- hormones
95
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
- Hormones
- Thyroxine
- Androgens (testosterone)
- Growth hormone
96
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
Hormones
- released by kidney in response to hypoxia
erythropoietin (EPO)
97
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
Hormones
- stimulates erythroblast cell division
erythropoietin (EPO)
98
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
Hormones
- accelerates Hb synthesis and RBC maturation
erythropoietin (EPO)
99
erythropoietin (EPO) involved in what 3 main things of RBC production
1. released by kidney in response to hypoxia
2. stimulates erythroblast cell division
3. accelerates Hb synthesis and RBC maturation
100
Regulation of RBC production (erythropoiesis):
- EPO or packed RBCs --> not a good idea
blood doping
101
RBC turnover:
After ~120 day lifespan OR damage _ of spleen, liver, and red bone marrow engulf RBCs, remove Hb and break Hb into components
macrophages
102
RBC turnover:
Macrophages (of spleen, liver & red bone marrow) _ aged or damaged RBCs
engulf
103
RBC turnover:
Macrophages (of spleen, liver & red bone marrow) remove Hb molecules from _ RBCs
hemolyzed (ruptured)
104
RBC turnover:
Macrophages (of spleen, liver & red bone marrow) break _ into components
hemoglobin (Hb)
105
small macrophage (active) = _
Monocyte (inactive)
106
3 ways for hemoglobin (Hb) turnover
1. Globulin proteins
2. Heme pigments
3. Heme iron is recycled
107
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Globulin proteins - disassembled into _ _ to be re-used
amino acids
108
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- converted to biliverdin (greenish), then _ (yellow-orange)
bilirubin
109
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- _ is excreted by liver in bile
Bilirubin
110
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- _ is caused by buildup of bilirubin
jaundice
111
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- converted by intestinal bacteria and oxygen to _ and _
urobilins and stercobilins
112
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme iron is recycled
- stored in _
- or transported throughout the bloodstream bound to transferrin
phagocytes
113
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Bilirubin at high levels can be _
toxic
114
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
_ stores bile
gallbladder
115
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- makes pee yellow
urobilins
116
Hemoglobin (Hb) turnover:
Heme pigments
- makes poo brown
stercobilins
117
Blood disorders:
Low RBC or low hemoglobin
anemia
118
Blood disorders:
Anemia
- lysing (exploding) of RBCs too fast
Hemolytic
119
Blood disorders:
Anemia
- low B12
pernicious
120
Blood disorders:
Anemia
- not enough iron in diet
- pregnancy
iron deficiency
121
Blood disorders:
Anemia
- actively hemorrhaging (may be internal)
- menstruation
hemorrhagic
122
Blood disorders:
- high RBC count
polycythemia
123
Blood disorders:
- _ is blood in urine
- _ is blood proteins in urine
- hematuria
- hemoglobinuria
124
Leukocytes
White Blood cell
125
White Blood cells function
- defend the body against pathogens
- remove toxins, wastes & abnormal cells
126
Abundance of WBCs:
Less than _ of the formed elements
0.1%
127
Abundance of WBCs:
1 microliter of blood has ~5 million RBCs and _ WBCs
~7 thousand
128
Abundance of WBCs:
WBCs in blood are small fraction of total WBCs
- majority of WBCs are in _
tissues
129
White Blood Cells structure:
WBCs have _ _ and typical _ _
- high concentration of secretory vesicles, phagocytic vesicles, and lysosomes
- large nucleus
- cellular organelles
130
White Blood Cells activity:
WBCs exhibit _ movement
amoeboid
131
White Blood Cells activity:
WBCs exhibit amoeboid movement in which 2 ways
1. emigration (move to areas in need)
2. positive chemotaxis (move toward chemicals)
132
Most White Blood Cells are _
phagocytic
133
White Blood Cells: Defense against pathogens
nonspecific defenses
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils
- monocytes
134
White Blood Cells: Defense against pathogens
specific defenses
lymphocytes
135
Types of WBCs:
- 50-70% of circulating WBCs
neutrophils
136
Types of WBCs:
- short life span of ~ 10 hours, or even shorter if
actively engulfing bacteria, debris, etc. (Pus-many dead)
neutrophils
137
Types of WBCs:
- Phagocytic: engulf pathogens or debris in tissues
neutrophils
138
Types of WBCs:
- 2-4% of circulating WBCs
eosinophils
139
Types of WBCs:
- increase in number during parasitic infections (release toxins)
eosinophils
140
Types of WBCs:
- increase number during allergic reactions
eosinophils
141
Types of WBCs:
- Phagocytic: engulf antibody-labeled materials, reduce inflammation
eosinophils
142
Types of WBCs:
- 2-8% of circulating WBCs
Monocytes/Macrophages
143
Types of WBCs:
- Largest WBC
Monocytes/Macrophages
144
Types of WBCs:
- Migrate out of blood vessels and become macrophages
Monocytes
145
Types of WBCs:
- Macrophages = aggressive phagocytes, engulf pathogens or debris
Macrophages
146
Types of WBCs:
- less than 1% of circulating WBCs
basophils
147
Types of WBCs:
- cross capillary endothelium and accumulate in damaged tissue
basophils
148
Types of WBCs:
- release histamine and heparin
basophils
149
Types of WBCs: Basophils
dilates blood vessels
histamine
150
Types of WBCs: Basophils
prevents blood clotting
heparin
151
Types of WBCs:
- 20-40% of circulating WBCs
lymphocytes
152
Types of WBCs:
- continuously migrate in and out of bloodstream
lymphocytes
153
Types of WBCs:
- provide defense against specific pathogens or toxins
lymphocytes
154
Types of WBCs: Lymphocytes
- 3 types of cells
1. T cells
2. B cells
3. NK cells
155
Types of WBCs: Lymphocytes
mediated immunity
- secrete chemicals
T cells
156
Types of WBCs: Lymphocytes
humoral immunity, produce antibodies
- when activated pump out antibodies
B cells
157
Types of WBCs: Lymphocytes
natural killer cells, destroy abnormal tissue cells
- cancer
NK cells
158
White Blood Cells:
_ _ used to distinguish among disorders
- parasitic infection, inflammation, allergic reaction
differential count
159
WBC differential count can indicate a disorder of WBCs:
- decreased # of WBCs
Leukopenia
160
WBC differential count can indicate a disorder of WBCs:
- increased # of WBCs
- leukemia
leukocytosis
161
cancer of WBCs
leukemia
162
White Blood Cells:
Leukopenia
decreased # of WBCs
163
White Blood Cells:
Leukocytosis
increased # of WBCs
164
WBC produced from _
hemocytoblasts (stem cells)
165
WBC production:
Eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils and
monocytes are produced in bone marrow by
_ _ _
myeloid stem cells
166
WBC production:
Lymphocytes produced from stem cells that
migrate to _ _ (thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes)
lymphoid tissue
167
Platelets:
cell fragments involved in _
clotting
168
Platelets:
_ per microliter of blood
150,000 to 500,000
169
low # of platelets
- increased risk for hemorrhage
thrombocytopenia
170
high # of platelets
- increased risk of blood clots
thrombocytosis
171
thrombocytopenia
low # of platelets
172
Thrombocytosis
high # of platelets
173
Platelets produced in bone marrow from _
megakaryocytes
174
megakaryocytes produce _ by shedding membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm and proteins (cell fragments )
platelets
175
Major components of the cardiovascular system
- blood
- heart
- blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins)
176
Cardiovascular system:
Blood to and from lungs
pulmonary circuit
177
Cardiovascular system:
Blood to and from rest of the body
systemic circuit
178
The heart:
- hollow muscular organ that acts as a _
- receives and pumps blood from two different circuits
- each circuit begins and ends at the heart
pump
179
The heart circuits:
Carries blood to and from gas exchange surfaces of lungs
- blood travels through circuits in sequence
pulmonary circuit
180
The heart circuits:
Carries blood to and from the rest of the body
- blood travels through circuits in sequence
systemic circuit
181
Blood vessels:
carry blood away from the heart
arteries
182
Blood vessels:
carry blood to the heart
veins
183
Blood vessels:
small vessels connecting between arteries and veins
capillaries
184
Blood vessels:
site of exchange of gasses, nutrients, fluids between blood and interstitial fluid
capillaries
185
The Heart:
Right atrium receives _ _ blood from body
low oxygen
186
The Heart:
Right ventricle receives low oxygen from the right atrium, pumps it to the _
lungs (pulmonary circuit)
187
The Heart:
Left atrium receives _ blood from lungs
oxygenated
188
The Heart:
Left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from left atrium and pumps it to the _
body (systemic circuit)
189
Chambers of the Heart:
Right and left chambers separated by partitions of connective tissue and muscle
- interatrial sepetum
- interventricular sepetum
190
Chambers of the Heart:
_ _ separates atria and ventricles
- two distinct muscle masses that contract separately
fibrous skeleton (connective tissue)
191
Chambers of the Heart:
right & left atria contract as _ _
one unit
192
Chambers of the Heart:
Right & left ventricles contact as _, after the atrial contraction
one
193
Chambers of the Heart:
_ control openings across the atrial-ventricular septum
valves
194
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
Thin walled chambers
atria
195
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
- receive blood from the veins and pump through valves to the ventricles
atria
196
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
- thick walled chambers
ventricles
197
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
- receive blood from atria and pump through valves into arteries
ventricles
198
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
- _ _ is more muscular than the right ventricle
left ventricle
199
Chambers of the Heart: Internal anatomy & organization
- Left ventricle needs to generate more _ to pump blood through systemic circuit
force
200
Sequence of events in one cardiac cycle:
1. cardiac contraction
- _ contract, push remaining blood into ventricle, then atria relax
- _ contract, push blood into arteries, then ventricles relax
2. cardiac relaxation
- both atria and ventricles are in relaxed state until next heart beat starts
- atria
- ventricle
201
Blood flow through heart depends on:
1. opening and closing of 4 valves (2 atrioventricular valves, 2 semilunar valves)
2. contraction and relaxation of myocardium (cardiac muscle) of atria and ventricles
202
Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of specific _ & _ in cell membranes of RBCs
glycolipids and glycoproteins
203
Blood types:
cell surface glycolipids and glycoproteins are cell identity factors called _
antigens
204
Blood types:
Immune system recognizes _ as "self" (ignores) or "foreign" (attacks)
antigens
205
Blood types are _ determined
genetically
206
Blood types:
Glycoprotein = _
Rh factor (+)
207
Blood types:
Glycolipid = _
A, B, AB
208
Blood types:
Antibodies to _ surface antigens circulate in the plasma
"foreign"
209
Blood types:
Antibodies to "foreign" surface antigens circulate in the plasma
- antibodies to A or B
- antibodies to Rh factor --> requires _
sensitization (exposure)
210
Blood types & cross-reactions:
Antibodies cross-react (bind to) antigens of "foreign" blood cells
- causes _
- causes _
- clumping (agglutination)
- hemolysis
211
Blood types & cross-reactions:
Hemolytic disease of the newborn can occur in _ fetus carried by _ mother
- Rh +
- Rh -
212
Blood types:
You are not born with _ but have to be exposed to it to have a (-) negative
Rh factor
213
Blood type A has
- _ antigens
- _ antibodies
- A antigens
- B antibodies (anti-B)
214
Blood type B has
- _ antigens
- _ antibodies
- B antigens
- A antibodies (anti-A)
215
Blood type AB has
- _ antigens
- _ antibodies
- A & B antigens
- No antibodies
216
Blood type O has
- _ antigens
- _ antibodies
- No antigens
- A & B antibodies (anti-A & anti-B)
217
Hemostasis
Blood clotting (cessation of bleeding)
218
3 phases of hemostasis (Blood clotting)
1. vascular phase
2. platelet phase
3. coagulation phase
219
Hemostasis phases:
- local blood vessel constriction
vascular phase
220
Hemostasis phases:
Vascular phase
- local blood vessel constriction
- contraction of smooth muscle in blood vessel walls
- _ _
muscular spasm
221
Hemostasis phases:
Vascular phase
- after spasm, blood vessel releases chemical factors triggering clotting and becomes _
sticky
222
Epithelium lining the blood vessels is called _
endothelium
223
Hemostasis phases:
Vascular phase
- blood vessel constricts and spasms
- releases chemical factors and becomes sticky to get ready for platelets
224
Hemostasis phases:
Platelet phase
- platelet adhesion
- platelets aggregation creates platelet plus (build up)
225
Hemostasis phases:
Activation
- change shape
- release factors stimulating aggregation and vascular spasm
- release clotting factors and calcium ions
Platelet phase
226
Hemostasis phases:
clot actually forms
Coagulation phase
227
Hemostasis phases:
- begins 30 seconds or more after injury
coagulation phase
228
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase depends on
- clotting factors (11 different proteins)
- calcium
- proenzymes
229
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase
- Proenzymes are inactive enzymes activated by chemicals from _ _ _ _
damaged cells and platelets
230
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase
- Triggering initiates a _ _ chain reaction
positive-feedback loop
231
Blood thinners are _
anti-coagulations
232
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- _ and _ pathways are completed first
intrinsic & extrinsic
233
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- After intrinsic & extrinsic pathways
Factor X (10)
234
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- Factor X (10) chain reaction leads to
prothrombin activator
235
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- Prothrombin activator converts _ to _
prothrombin (inactive) to _thrombin (active)
236
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- Thrombin contributes to the conversion of _ to _
fibrinogen (inactive) to fibrin (active)
237
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- Inactive enzyme made in liver, always present in plasma
prothrombin
238
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
soluble protein made in liver, always present in plasma
fibrinogen
239
Hemostasis phases:
Coagulation phase - common pathway
- insoluble strands of protein, form clot, trapping platelets and RBcs
fibrin
240
Hemostasis phases:
- platelets contract
- pull damaged areas together
retraction
241
Hemostasis:
- gradual process of dissolving clots
Fibrinolysis
242
Blood clot process:
Fibrinolysis
- Thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) activate plasminogen, producing _
plasmin
243
Blood clot process:
Fibrinolysis
- _ & _ activator (t-PA)
Thrombin (inactive) and tissue plasminogen (active with contact)
244
Blood clot process:
Fibrinolysis (retraction)
- plasmin _ fibrin strands
digests
245
Clot prevention:
clotting should not occur except in area of _
blood vessel damage
246
Clot prevention:
Normal plasma contains several anti-coagulants
- enzymes that inhibit clotting by inhibiting one or more
- Antithrombin III
- Thrombomodulin
- Heparin
247
Clot prevention:
Accelerates activation of antithrombin III)
heparin
248
Drugs in preventing clotting
- heparin
- coumadin (warfarin)
- aspirin
249
Drugs that dissolve existing clots
- Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)
- Streptokinase and urokinase
250
Inadequate blood clotting:
Nutrients deficiencies
- low plasma concentrations of _ impairs blood clotting
calcium
251
Inadequate blood clotting:
Nutrients deficiencies
- _ _ deficiency leads to bleeding disorder - needed in liver for synthesis of four of the clotting factors
- produced by intestinal bacteria
vitamin K
252
Inadequate blood clotting:
genetic disorder
- inherited, sex-linked
hemophilia
253
Excessive blood clotting:
- blood clot attached to blood vessel wall
thrombous
254
Excessive blood clotting:
enlarging _ can block blood vessel or pieces can break off becoming embolus
thrombus
255
Excessive blood clotting:
A blood clot circulating in blood system
embolus
256
Excessive blood clotting:
embolus becomes stuck and blocks a blood vessel
embolism
257
Excessive blood clotting types
- thrombus
- embolus (can become embolism)
258
The heart:
2 types of cardiac muscle cells
1. contractile myocardial cells
2. myocardial cells of conducting system
259
The heart:
contractile myocardial cells & myocardial cells of conducting system work together to produce a _
heartbeat
260
The heart:
The conducting system
- consists of specialized, _, cardiac muscle cells
non-contractile
261
The heart:
The conducting system
- _ produce spontaneous action potentials
nodal myocardial cells (pacemakers)
262
The heart:
The conducting system
- _ _ _ propagate the electrical signal (action potential) rapidly through out the mass of heart muscle cells
conducting myocardial cells
263
The heart:
The conducting system
- 2 types of nodes
1. sinoartial (SA) node
2. atrioventricular (AV) node
264
The heart:
The conducting system - node
- located in wall of right atrium
sinoatrial (SA) node
265
The heart:
The conducting system - SA node
- initiates action potential that _ the cardiac contraction cycle
starts
266
The heart:
The conducting system - node
- located at junction between atria and ventricle
atrioventricular (AV) node
267
The heart:
The conducting system - AV node
- conducts electrical signal _ atrial ventricular septum
across
268
The heart:
The conducting system
- internodal pathways
- rapidly conduct action potential from SA node to atria muscle cells and to AV node
atrial conducting cells
269
The heart:
The conducting system
- rapidly conduct action potentials from AV node to ventricle muscle cells
- AV bundle (bundle of His), Bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
ventricular conducting cells
270
The heart:
The conducting system - atrial conducting cells
- rapidly conduct action potential from _ _ to _ _ _ and to _ _
- SA node
- atrial muscle cells
- AV node
271
The heart:
The conducting system - ventricular conducting cells
- rapidly conduct action potential from _ _ to _ _ _
- AV node
- ventricle muscle cells
272
Step 1 of the conducting system of the Heart
SA node activity and atrial activation begin
273
Step 2 of the conducting system of the Heart
stimulus spreads across the atrial surfaces and reaches the AV node
274
Step 3 of the conducting system of the Heart
- there is a 100-msec delay at the AV node
- atrial contraction begins
275
Step 4 of the conducting system of the Heart
impulse travels along the interventricular septum within the AV bundle and the bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers and, via the moderator band, to the papillary muscles of the right ventricle
276
Step 5 of the conducting system of the Heart
- impulse is distributed by Purkinje fibers and relayed throughout the ventricular myocardium
- atrial contraction is completed, and ventricular contraction begins
277
Electrocardiogram:
Electrical depolarization spreads from SA node through atrial muscle cells
P wave
278
Electrocardiogram:
Depolarization spreading from AV bundles and Purkinje fibers through ventricle muscle cells
QRS complex
279
Electrocardiogram:
Repolarization of ventricle muscle cells
T wave
280
Abnormalities of conducting system:
Slower than normal heart rate
Bradycardia
281
Abnormalities of conducting system:
Faster than normal
tachycardia
282
Abnormalities of conducting system:
Conducting deficits
- _ node can take over if SA node is lost
AV
283
Abnormalities of conducting system:
Conducting deficits
- an area other than SA or AV node is generating action potentials that initiate contractions
ectopic pacemaker
284
Abnormalities of conducting system:
abnormal patterns of cardiac electrical activity
- clinically important if pumping efficiency of heart is reduced
arrhythmias
285
The heart:
Movements and forces generated during cardiac contractions
Cardiodynamics
286
Cardiodynamics:
Amount of blood in each ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole
End-diastolic volume (EDV)
287
Cardiodynamics:
Amount of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular systole
End-systolic volume (ESV)
288
Pressure and volume changes:
Atrial systole
- at start of cardiac cycle, atria, and ventricles have blood received during diastole
- ventricles are _
~70% filled
289
Pressure and volume changes:
Atrial systole pushes blood into the ventricle, filling to _
100%
290
Pressure and volume changes:
Arterial systole
- 100% filled = _ _ of blood in the ventricles
end-diastolic volume (EDV)
291
Pressure and volume changes:
Arterial systole
- end-diastolic volume = _ in resting adult
~130 milliliters
292
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole occurs building up pressure on blood until _ _ open
semilunar valves
293
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- _ _ occurs pushing blood into arteries
ventricular ejection
294
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- ~70-80 milliliters ejected = _
stroke volume
295
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- ~60% ejected = _
ejection fraction
296
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- ~40% remains in ventricle = _
end-systolic volume (ESV)
297
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- stroke volume
~70-80 milliliters
298
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- ejection fraction
~60%
299
Pressure and volume changes:
ventricular systole
- end-systolic volume (ESV)
~40% remains in ventricle
300
Cardiodynamics:
Amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat
stroke volume (SV)
301
Cardiodynamics:
EDV - ESV = _
SV
302
Cardiodynamics:
Percentage of the EDV pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat
ejection fraction
303
Cardiodynamics:
SV/EDV = _%
EF
304
Cardiodynamics:
Volume pumped by left ventricle in one minute
cardiac output (CO)
305
Cardiodynamics:
cardiac output (CO) is measured in _
mL/min
306
Cardiodynamics:
Heart rate (HR) is measured in _
beats/min
307
Cardiodynamics:
Stroke volume (SV) is measured in _
mL/beat
308
Cardiodynamics:
Resting adult has _ liters/min
~6 (6000ml/min)
309
Cardiodynamics:
75 beats/min x 80 ml/beat = _
6000 ml/min
310
Control of cardiac output:
cardiac output is adjusted to meet circulatory demands
- change in _ (ANS, hormones, stretch receptors)
heart rate
311
Control of cardiac output:
cardiac output is adjusted to meet circulatory demands
- change in _ (venous return, blood pressure)
stroke volume
312
2 controls of cardiac output
1. change in heart rate
2. change in stroke volume
313
Valves of the heart:
Between atria and ventricles
atrio-ventricular valves
314
Valves of the heart:
atrio-ventricular valves
- right AV valve = _
- Left AV valve = _
- tricuspid
- bicuspid (mitral)
315
Valves of the heart:
- pulmonary valve
- aortic valve
semilunar (ventricular-arterial) valves
316
Valves of the heart:
Semilunar valve
- from right ventricle into pulmonary arterial trunk (to lungs)
pulmonary valve
317
Valves of the heart:
Semilunar valve
- from left ventricle into aortic artery (to body tissues)
aortic valve
318
Functions of heart valve:
controlled by _ _
ventricular contraction
319
Functions of heart valve:
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
- are in _ _ when atria and ventricles are relaxed
open position
320
Functions of heart valve:
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
- are in _ when atria are contracting
open
321
Functions of heart valve:
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
- are _ _ when ventricles contract to prevent backflow of blood from ventricles to atria
forced closed
322
Functions of heart valve:
Semilunar valves
- are in _ _ when atria and ventricles are relaxed, and when atria contract
closed position
323
Functions of heart valve:
Semilunar valves
- are _ _ when ventricles contract enough to raise pressure higher than blood pressure in the arteries
forced open
324
Functions of heart valve:
Semilunar valves
- are _ again when ventricles stop contracting
closed
325
Valvular disorders:
_ side of heart has most disorders
left
326
Valvular disorders:
- stenosis
- bicuspid
aortic valve
327
Valvular disorders:
- prolapse
bicuspid valve
328
- small
- single nucleus
- abundant mitochondria
- very extensive blood supply
- interconnected by intercalated discs (gap junctions provide electrical interconnection)
myocardial cells (cardiac muscle cells)
329
Contractile myocardial cells:
Action potential
- rapid _ caused by opening of voltage-gated _ ion channels
- depolarization
- sodium
330
Contractile myocardial cells:
Action potential
- A _ depolarized phase caused by opening of slow voltage-gated _ ion channels
- plateau
- calcium
331
Contractile myocardial cells:
Action potential
- repolarization caused by opening of _ ion channels
potassium
332
Calcium ion & myocardial cell contraction:
- calcium ions bind to _ complex causing it to shift position
troponin-tropomyosin
333
Calcium ion & myocardial cell contraction:
- Calcium enters the cell membranes during the _ phase
- affected by interstitial calcium levels
plateau
334
Calcium ion & myocardial cell contraction:
- additional calcium is released from reserves in the _
sarcoplasmic reticulum
335
Calcium ion & myocardial cell contraction:
- calcium comes from _ _ & _ _
- extracellular fluid
- sarcoplasmic reticulum
336
Heart sounds are detected with a _
stethoscope
337
Heart sounds:
"lubb" = _
closing of the AV valves (tricuspid)
338
Heart sounds:
"dupp" = _
closing of the semilunar valves (bicuspid)
339
Heart sounds detected by a _
stethoscope
340
Heart sounds:
sound from blood regurgitating through a valve
heart murmur
341
Cardiac cycle:
contraction = _
systole (120)
342
Cardiac cycle:
relaxation = _
diastole (80)
343
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
Normal heart rate = _
~ 75 beats per minute
344
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
Each cardiac cycle is _ seconds
0.8 seconds (60 sec/75) or 800 milliseconds
345
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
As heart rate increases, all the phases of the cardiac cycle _
shorten
346
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
As heart rate increases _ bpm = 0.5 seconds (500 milliseconds)
~ 120
347
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
As heart rate increases, all the phases of the cardiac cycle shorten
- greatest reduction is length of time spent in _
diastole
348
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
_ - both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the SA and AV nodes
dual innervation
349
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Parasympathetic - _
Acetyl Choline (ACh)
350
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Parasympathetic - Acetyl Coline (ACh)
- _ heart rate
decreases
351
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Parasympathetic - Acetyl Coline (ACh)
- reduces rate of depolarization in SA nodal cells by increasing _ _ _
potassium ion efflux
352
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Sympathetic - _ & _
Norepinephrine (NE) & Epinephrine (E)
353
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Sympathetic - Norepinephrine (NE) & Epinephrine (E)
- _ heart rate
increases
354
Factors affecting Heart Rate:
Sympathetic - Norepinephrine (NE) & Epinephrine (E)
- increases rate of depolarization in SA node by increasing _ _ _
calcium ion influx
355
Blood vessels:
Carry blood away from heart
arteries
356
Blood vessels:
3 types of arteries
1. elastic arteries
2. muscular arteries
3. arterioles
357
Blood vessels:
Conducting arteries
elastic arteries
358
Blood vessels:
distributing arteries
muscular arteries
359
Blood vessels:
resistance arteries
arterioles
360
Blood vessels:
connect arterioles to venules
- 1 cell layer thick
capillaries
361
Blood vessels:
carry blood toward heart
veins
362
Blood vessels:
smaller veins = _
venules
363
Difference between arteries & veins:
- Arteries have _ walls and higher blood pressure than veins
thicker
364
Difference between arteries & veins:
- A constricted artery has a small, round _
lumen
365
Difference between arteries & veins:
- a _ has a large, irregular lumen
vein
366
Difference between arteries & veins:
- The endothelium of a constricted artery is _
folded
367
Difference between arteries & veins:
- Arteries are more _ than veins
elastic
368
Difference between arteries & veins:
- veins have _
valves
369
Arteries:
Undergo changes in _
diameter
370
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- passive changes due to _
elasticity
371
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- passive changes due to elasticity
- _ _ = high density of elastic fibers
elastic arteries
372
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- active changes due to _
contractility
373
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- active changes due to contractility
- smooth muscles in walls of muscular arteries and _
arterioles
374
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- active changes due to contractility
- _ = decreases the size of the lumen
vasocontriction
375
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- active changes due to contractility
- _ = increases the size of the lumen
vasodilation
376
Arteries:
Undergo changes in diameter
- active changes due to contractility
- vasoconstriction and vasodilation is controlled by _ _ and sympathetic ANS control
local factors (histamine)
377
- smallest vessels connecting arteries and veins
- thins walls: one layer of endothelium with membrane
Capillaries
378
Capillaries:
- provide for _ between blood and interstitial fluid of body tissues
exchange
379
Capillaries are classified according to _
permeability
380
Capillaries classification:
- no pores, only permit diffusion of water, small solutes, and lipids
continuous capillary
381
Capillaries classification:
- large gaps allow proteins to move in and out
- mostly in liver
sinusoid capillary
382
Capillaries classification:
- pores allow for diffusion of larger solubility
fenestrated capillary
383
_ exchange occurs across walls of arteries or veins
NO
384
Veins:
Venules & medium-sized veins have _
valves
385
Veins:
venules & medium-sized veins have valves
- prevent _
- varicose veins due to valve failure
backflow
386
Veins:
Movement of blood through veins of heart dependent on body movement to compress veins
venous return
387
Veins:
Venous return
- muscular _
- respiratory pump
compression
388
Veins:
sympathetic stimulation of smooth muscles in walls of veins can cause decrease in size of lumen
- emergency only
venoconstriction
389
Distribution of blood:
- total blood volume is _ distributed (~5 liters)
unevenly
390
Distribution of blood:
- total blood volume is unevenly distributed (~5 liters)
- _ in heart, arteries and capillaries
30-35%
391
Distribution of blood:
- total blood volume is unevenly distributed (~5 liters)
- _ in venous system
65-70%
392
Distribution of blood:
- total blood volume is unevenly distributed (~5 liters)
- This creates a _ _
venous reserve
393
Distribution of blood:
- total blood volume is unevenly distributed (~5 liters)
- venous reserve created in response to blood loss, _ occurs, forcing blood from venous system to arterial system and capillaries
- veins in liver, skin, and lungs
venoconstriction
394
Cardiac centers in _
brainstem
395
Cardio-acceleratory center controls _ _ of heart
sympathetic innervation
396
Cardio-inhibitory center controls _ _ of heart
parasympathetic innervation
397
Cardiac centers (in brainstem):
monitor blood pressure
baroreceptors
398
Cardiac centers (in brainstem):
monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in blood
- changes causes reflux response
chemoreceptors
399
Areas of partial or complete blockage of coronary circulation
- due to plaque or thrombus (clot)
coronary artery disease
400
Cardiovascular physiology:
Rate of blood flow through arteries, capillaries and veins determined by
- _ on blood
- _ to flow that the blood encounters
- pressure
- resistance
401
Cardiovascular physiology:
Greater pressure needed to push blood through systemic circuit than pulmonary circuit because _
resistance is greater
402
Cardiovascular physiology:
Opposes the movement of blood
resistance
403
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance
- _ between blood and walls of blood vessels
friction
404
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance
- _ of blood-more resistance if viscosity of high
viscosity
405
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance
- _ (abnormal - due to vessel damage)
turbulence
406
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance
- for blood to flow, the _ _ must overcome the peripheral resistance
pressure gradient
407
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance - vessel length
- less resistance in _ circuit than _ circuit = less total length of vessels
- pulmonary
- systemic
408
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance - vessel diameter
- less resistance in _ _ vessels
larger diameter
409
Cardiovascular physiology:
Resistance - vessel diameter
- vasodilation and vasoconstriction change _ _
- so do plaques
peripheral resistance
410
Pressures within the systemic cardiovascular system:
Highest in arteries near the heart, where it is _ constant
not
411
Pressures within the systemic cardiovascular system:
~ _ mm Hg during systole
120
412
Pressures within the systemic cardiovascular system:
~ _ mm Hg during diastole
80 (does not drop to 0)
413
Pressures within the systemic cardiovascular system:
Pressure drops as blood moves forward
- blood moves from _ _ _ pressure
high to low
414
Average pressures in systemic system:
- aorta = _ mm Hg
100
415
Average pressures in systemic system:
- arterioles entering capillaries = _ mm Hg
35
416
Average pressures in systemic system:
- venules exiting capillaries = _ mm Hg
18
417
Average pressures in systemic system:
- vena cavae = _ mm Hg
2
418
Cardiovascular physiology:
- abnormally low blood pressure
hypotension
419
Cardiovascular physiology:
due to hemorrhage or dehydration
hypovolemia
420
Cardiovascular physiology:
Hypotension
- overly aggressive drug treatment for high blood pressure
- orthostatic hypotension
- _ (vasomotor) syncope = "fainting at the sight of blood"
vasovagal
421
Cardiovascular physiology:
Abnormally high blood pressure
- systolic greater than 150 & diastolic greater than 90 at rest
hypertension
422
Cardiovascular physiology:
causes - smoking, obesity, too much salt, genetic, kidney disease, excessive alcohol
hypertension
423
Cardiovascular physiology:
Hypertension adverse effects
- _ of left ventricle due to increased workload
- arteriosclerosis - damaged blood vessels
- aneurysm
hypertrophy
