Exam 2 Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
In what order does food travel through the digestive system?
A
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus
2
Q
What is the alimentary canal?
A
Tube where food/chyme passes through and the GI tract
3
Q
What are accessory structures?
A
Aid in digestion/break down food
4
Q
How many layers does the alimentary canal have?
A
4
5
Q
The inner most of the alimentary canal is the lumen, what are the four different layers that surround the lumen?
A
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa
6
Q
What makes up the mucosa?
A
The epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae
7
Q
The inner most part of the mucosa
A
epithelium
8
Q
The part of the mucosa that is the blood and lymphadic vessels, it also contains the mucosa associated lymphatic tissue
A
Lamina propria
9
Q
The part of the mucosa that makes up the muscles of the mucosa
A
Muscularis mucosae
10
Q
What does the submucosa do?
A
It contains the blood and lymphatic vessels and contains glands that secrete a digestive enzyme
11
Q
What does the muscularis contain?
A
The circular muscle and longitudinal muscle
12
Q
What do the circular muscle and longitudinal muscle do?
A
Movement/propulsion of food/chyme. Mechanical digestion
13
Q
The entry of food into the alimentary canal (mouth)
A
Ingestion
14
Q
What are the three methods of propulsion?
A
Peristalsis, gastric emptying, mass movement
15
Q
The contraction/relaxation of the pharynx that moves food
A
peristalsis
16
Q
The physical breakdown of material
A
mechanical digestion
17
Q
Chewing
A
mastication
18
Q
gastric mixing
A
stomach; mixing around
19
Q
Intestines; contraction/relaxation that makes chyme move back and forth
A
segmentation
20
Q
The breakdown of material through enzymatic reactions
A
chemical digestion
21
Q
Mainly occurs in the intestine (small) when nutrients move from the lumen into the blood stream
A
Absorption
22
Q
The elimination of waste
A
defication
23
Q
Synthesis and secretes saliva
A
salivary glands
24
Q
Maintains the mouth pH and lubricates the bolus
A
saliva
25
Synthesis and secretes enzymes; moves chewed food into bolus
tongue
26
Breaks down starches
salivary amylase
27
Where does salivary amylase come from and where is it active/inactive?
It comes from the salivary glands and is active in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus while it is inactive everywhere else
28
Breaks down lipids
lingual lipase
29
Where is lingual lipase made and where is it active/inactive?
It is made in the tongue, it is inactive in the mouth and active in the stomach
30
What does the pharynx do?
moves air and food
31
Moves the bolus from the pharynx intro the esophagus
upper esophageal sphincter (UES)
32
The upper 2/3 composed of volintary skeletal muscle and invol smooth muscle. lower 1/3 all smooth
esophagus
33
Prevents gastric juices from entering the esophagus
Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
34
What digestive processes occur in the stomach?
Propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion via pepsin, lingual and gastric lipase
35
What are the three important parts of the stomach and what are they?
The fundus (top) the body, the pylorus (end), rugae (folding that allow stomach to expand)
36
Creates mucus to lubricate the stomahc
surface mucus cells
37
Synthesis and secretes HCl which kills microorganisms; also contains the intrinsic factor that absorbs B-12`
Parietal cell
38
Synthesis and secretes pepsinogen (inactive protease)
Chief Cell
39
synthesis and secretes hormones; G-Cells secrete gastrin
Enteroendocrine cell
40
What the the three parts of the small intestines?
Duodenum, jejunum, lleum
41
What digestive processes occur in the small intestine?
Propulsion, chemical and mechanical digestion, ABSORPTION
42
What do the circular folds, villi, and microvilli do?
They increase surface areas which creates more area for absorption; microvilli also creates brush boarder enzymes
43
Creates mucus for the small intestine to protect it
goblet cells
44
Secretes and synthesis intestinal jucies
Crypt of lieberkuhn
45
What are the main functions of the large intestines?
Finishes absorption of nutrients, forms feces, and eliminates it
46
What digestive processes are within the large intestines?
Absorption, mechanical digestion, propulsion, defecation
47
Separates the small intestine from the large intestine
Ileocecal Sphincter
48
In what order does food go through the large intestine?
Cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, anus
49
Stores and concentrates bile
Gallbladder
50
What are the 8 things that the liver doess?
Synthesizes bile
Removes old red blood cells
Process nutrients after eating
processes nutrients between meals
synthesis hormones
eliminate waste
store essential molecules
51
Where does bile come from
It is synthesized in the liver from cholesterol
52
The breaking down of fat globules into smaller particles surrounded by water
emulsification
53
What does the pancreas do?
Synthesis and secretes pancreatic juices
54
What are the components of pancreatic juice?
Zymogen (inactive enzyme), bicarbonate buffer (Neutralizes HCL from the stomach), Co-Lipase (Aids lipase by loading it onto the lipid), Enzymes (amylase and lipase)
55
What are the inactive zymogens
Trypsinogen
chymotrypsinogen
procarboxypeptidase
56
Where are zymogens stored and how are they secreted?
Stored in zymogen granules (secretory vesicles) secreted via exocytosis
57
What does the journey of a zymogen look like?
Acinar cells s/s zymogens, they go through ducts, to the ampulla of Vader, to the sphincter of oddi
58
Look at the last slide on the physiology 1 notes
Okay
59
What is the enzyme that breaks down polysaccharides? (starch)
amylase
60
Where is amylase synthesized and secreted?
Salivary glands and pancreas
61
What is starch/glycogen broken down into after coming in contact with amylase?
maltose and limit (alpha) dextrins
62
How is galactose absorbed?
It crosses the apical membrane via secondary active cotransport and then it crosses the basolateral membrane via facilitated diffusion
63
How is fructose absorbed?
frucose crosses both the apical and basolateral membrane via facilitated diffusion
64
What are the enzymes that breakdown proteins?
protease
65
The splitting of polypeptides at the interior bond (small fragments)
endopeptidase
66
The cleaving off of amino acids from the end of polypeptide (singles)
Exopeptidase
67
What is the active versions of the zymogen proteases?
Trypsinogen --> Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen--> Chymotrypsin
Procarboxypeptidase--> carboxypeptidase
68
What are the active and nonactive versions of stomach proteases
Pepsinogen (in)
Pepsin (active)
69
What are the brush boarder proteases?
Aminopeptidase
Enterokinase
70
What zymogens are endo?
Trypsin and chymotrypsin
71
What zymogens are exo?
Carbodypeptidase
72
What is the journey of the absorption of singular amino acids?
1.Na/K pump
2.secondary cotransport
3.Facilitated diffusion
73
What is the journey of the absorption of dipeptides/tripeptides?
1.secondary cotransport
2.Di/Tri with epithelial cells break down into amino acids
3. Facilitated diffusion
74
What are the enzymes that digest lipids?
lipase
75
What do bile salts do?
They increase the surface area of droplets by breaking them down into several
76
Where is lingual lipase secreted and where is it active?
Secreted in mouth but is active in the stomach
77
Where is bile made and stored?
made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder
78
What is the journey of lipids in absorption?
They are broken down by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol. They simple diffuse and go to the smooth ER where they are reassembled. They then go to the golgi apparatus where we are transported with chyomicrons into the lymphatic system via the lacteal. Then it is broken into small pieces to enter the blood/
79
Triglycerides, proteins, and other lipids
Chylomicrons
80
how are chylomicrons digested
lipoprotein lipase
81
What happens to bile salts after they are used?
They are recycled back ot the liver
82
What are some fat-soluable vitamins and where are they absorbed
A,D,E,K
With lipids
83
What are some water soluble vitamins and how are they absorbed
B and C
Require carrier proteins
84
Where does most water absorption occur?
Large intestine
85
The sum of all chemical reactions in your body
Metabolism
86
Polymer of glucose that is made/stored in the liver/muscle.
Glycogen
87
The building of glycogen from excess glucose molecules
Glycogenisis
88
Breaking down of glycogen into individual glucose molecules
Glycogenolysis`
89
First step of cellular respiration, breaking down of glucose into pyruvate to get atp and reduce NAD
glycolysis
90
Catabolic hormone that is synthesized and secreted in alpha cells in pancreas to increase blood glucose levels
Glucagon
91
Hexose monosaccharide used for immediate source of energy
Glucose
92
Causes breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones
Catabolic Hormones`
93
What are the three catabolic hormones
Cortisol, Glucagon, Epinephrine
94
What do catabolic hormones do?
does Glycogenolysis to increase blood glucose levels
95
Cause formation of large molecules from small ones
Anabolic hormones
96
What are the anabolic hormones?
Insulin and Testosterone
97
What do anabolic hormones do?
Do Glycogenesis in order to lower blood glucose
98
What happens to cells that lack ATP?
THEY DIE
99
How do we get ATP?
Through the food that we eat which turns into glucose and then in turn into ATP
100
What do we do if we lack glucose/glycogen in the body?
We use stored fat that breaks down
101
What is the absolute last resort that is a source of ATP?
The cannibalization of muscle tissue
102
The loss of electrons
Oxidation
103
The gaining of electrons
Reduction
104
The complete oxidation in presence of O2
Aerobic respiration
105
What are the steps of aerobic respiration?
1. glycolysis
2. Pyruvate oxidation
3. Krebs cycle
4. Oxidative phosphorylation
106
Incomplete oxidation that occurs due to no O2
Anaerobic Respiration
107
What are the steps of anaerobic respiration?
1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation
108
The process of turning excess glucose into triglycerides inside adipose tissue
Lipoigenesis
109
The process of turning non-carbs into glucose (ex: Pyruvate, Lactate, glycerol)
Gluconeogenesis
110
Where does glycolysis take place?
Cytoplasm
111
Where does pyruvate oxidation take place?
Mitocondria
112
Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
Mitocondria
113
Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?
Mitocondria
114
How many ATP are produced via the complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecules?
36 ATP
115
What are the inputs of glycolysis? (aerobic)
2 ATP
2 NAD+
4 ADP
116
What are the outputs of glycolysis? (aerobic)
2 pyruvates
2 ADP
2 NADH
4 ATP
117
What are the inputs of pyruvate oxidation?
2 pyruvates
2 NAD+
2 CoA
118
What are the outputs of pyruvate oxidation?
2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl CoA
119
What are the inputs of the Krebs Cycle?
2 Acetyl CoA
6 NAD+
2 FAD
2 ADP
120
What are the outputs of the Krebs Cycle?
2 CoA
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
2 Co2
121
What are the inputs for oxidative phosphorylation?
10 NADH
2 FADH2
O2
ADP
122
What are the outputs of oxidative phosphorylation?
10 NAD+
2 FAD
H2O
ATP
123
What are a few reasons why anaerobic respiration happens?
Lack O2
Nonfunctioning Mitochondria
Cell lacks mitochondria
124
What are the inputs of glycolysis? (anaerobic)
2 ATP
2 NAD+
125
What are the outputs of glycolysis? (anaerobic)
4 ATP
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
126
What are the inputs of fermentation?
2 Pyruvate
NADH
127
What are the outputs of fermentation?
NAD+
Lactate
128
The breaking down of fatty acids
Lipolysis
129
What do too many ketones do?
It makes blood acidic which means DEATH
130
After having acidic blood, excess K+
Hyperkalemia
131
How do you eliminate Amino Acids?
deaminate
ammonia
Liver
urea
urine
132
The fed state that occurs when the body is absorbing nutrients
Absorptive state
133
What does the absorptive state do?
Increases blood glucose and amino acids
134
Where does insulin comes from and what does it do?
Comes from beta cells in pancreas. and decreases blood glucose. It also increases synthesis for lipids glycogen and protein
135
The fasted state which occurs when there is no food intake
Postabsoprtive state
136
What does the postabsorptive state do?
Blood glucose is lower
137
Where does glucagon comes from and what does it do?
It is released from alpha cells and raises blood glucose. It also increases glycogenolysis, gluconrogenesis, and ketogenesis
138
Where does glucagon comes from and what does it do?
It is released from alpha cells and raises blood glucose. It also increases glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis
139
The classification based on what they do\
Functional classification
140
Classification based on the chemical properties of messengers
Chemical classification
141
When the cells communicate with each other without an intermediaate
Direct communication
142
Pore between two cells that allows ions and solutes to pass through
Gap Junction
143
Secretes the ligand
secretory cell
144
Is there a specific name for the secretory and target cells in paracrines?
NO
145
Where do the messages of pacarines go?
Interstitial fluid
146
Do the secretory cells and target cells of paracrine need to be close or far away from each other?
Close
147
Do neurotransmitters have specific names for their secretory and target cells?
Secretory- pre-synoptic neuron
Target- Post-synoptic neuron
148
Where do the messages of neurotransmitters go?
Interstitial fluid
149
Do the secretory cell and target cell need to be close or far for neurotransmitters?
Close
150
Is there a specific name for the secretory and target cell of hormones?
Secretory- Endocrine cell
151
Where do the messages go for hormones?
Interstital fluid and blood
152
Do the secretory cells and target cells need to be close or far for hormones?
Far away
153
What is the chemical class of neurotranmitters?
Amino acids, amines, or [proteins
154
What is the chemical class of paracrines?
Amines or proteins
155
What is the chemical class of hormones
Steroids, amines, or proteins
156
What does half-life mean?
How long it takes for half of something to be used or disappear
157
Are amino acids lipophilic or lipophobic?
Lipophobic
158
Are amines lipophilic or lipophobic?
Lipophobic except for thyroid
159
Are peptides lipophobic or lipophilic?
Lipophobic
160
Are steroids lipophilic or lipophobic
Lipophilic
161
When are lipophilic chemicals synthesised?
on demand
162
When are lipophobic chemicals synthesised?
Independent of demand (stored up)
163
How are amino acids transported?
In the intersitial fluid only
164
How are amines transported?
In the interstital fluid or blood
165
How are peptide/proteins transported?
Interstitial fluid or blood
166
How are steroids transported?
Blood only
167
How to lipophobic things travel through blood?
by dissolving in the plasma
168
How do lipophilic things travel through the blood?
Bound to a carrier protein
169
What is the halflife of lipophic things?
Short
170
What is the halflife of lipophilic things
Long
171
how strong the interaction is between messenger and receptors
Affinity
172
If we increase the affinity between the messenger and the receptor then what happens to the likelihood of binding?
Increase
173
A chemical that binds to receptors and mimics a normal response
Agonist
174
Competes with normal ligands for the same binding sight
antagonist
175
binding within the cell
Intracellular mediated response
176
Binding on the cell membrane
Membrane bound mediated response
177
When is a ligand gated channel fast?
When the receptor and channel are the same protein
178
When the receptor and channel are the same protein
Ionotropic
179
When is a ligand gated channel slow?
When the receptor and the channel are different proteins
180
When the receptor and the channel are different proteins
metabotropic
181
How do you activate a G-protein
Ligand binds
GDP falls off
GTP comes on
Alpha subunit slides over
182
How do you inactive a G-protein
Ligand falls off
GTP into GDP
Alpha subunit slides back
183
Messenger binds to receptor and activates G protein slides over and opens
Direct coupling
184
Messenger activated g protein which activates amplifer which acitvates a second messenger
Second messenger system
185
What are the two types of G proteins
Gi- inhibitory
Gs- stimulatory
186
What are the three amplifier enzymes
Adenylate cyclase
Guanylate cyclase
Phospholipase C
187
What is the insulin receptor
Tyrosine kinase
188
A receptor detects ion concentration or metabolic concentration in plasma to keep the balance
Humoral
189
Comes from central or peripheral system and neurons release the hormone
Neural
190
When another hormone causes release of another hormone
Hormonal
191
An impt gland in regulation of hormones
Pituitary gland
192
The part of the pituitary that doesn't produce hormones but stores hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary
193
The part of the pituitary that makes hormones
Anterior pituitary
194
How are hormones released into the blood
Exocytosis
195
Regulates hormone secretion by another endocrine gland
Topic hormone
196
What causes the secretion of cortisol?
Stress that stimulates the hypothalmas (CRH) which binds to receptors on anterior pituitary that releases ACTh which secretes cortisol
197
Hormones that release at certain times of the dayu
Circadian Rhythm
198
Secreting too much hormones
Hypersecreted
199
Not secreting enough hormones
Hyposecretion
200
A problem that is within the final endocrine gland
Primary disorder
201
A problem with the anterior pituitary or hypothalmus
Secondary disorder
202
Having a functioning adenoma causes
Hypersecretion
203
Having a non-functioning adenoma means
Hyposecretion
204
What hormones does that posterior pituitary secrete
Oxytocin and ADH which are stored in the PP and synthesized in the hypothalamus
205
What is ADH produced by and what does it target/do?
Produced- paraventricular nuclei of hypothal
Targets- kidneys
Does- Regulates H2O and osmolarity balance within the plasma
206
What is Oxytocin produced by and what does it target/do?
Produced- supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus
Targets- Uterus and breast tissue
Does- Contractions and increase milk let down
207
What stimulates ADH release?
Pain, stress, nicotine
208
What inhibits ADH release?
ALcohol
209
If you have high levels of ADH you...
You pee alot
210
Causes GH hypersecretion after puberty, what is the result?
Acromegaly, soft tissue enlargement
211
Causes GH hypersecretion before puberty, what is the result?
Gigantism, bone growth
212
What does the thyroid secrete?
Thyroid hormone and calcitonin
213
Make up the wall of folicles
Follicular cells
214
What do C cells secrete?
Calcitonin
215
What do follicular cells secrete and do
Secrete thyroidglobin and bring in iodide
216
What hormones control Ca balance
Calcitonin and PTH
217
What does PTH stand for?
Para thyroid Hormone
218
Breaksdown bone to increase calcium in the plasma
Osteoclasts
219
functions of Calcitonin
Decreases Ca concentration in the blood stream
220
Functions of PTH
Raises Ca concentration in the blood stream
221
Where are the adrenal glands and what are the two parts of it
On top of the kidneys: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
222
What are the different parts of the adrenal cortex?
Zona Glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, Zona Reticularis
223
What does the zona glomerulosa secrete?
Mineralcorticoids ALDOSTERONE
224
What does aldosterone target and what is its function?
Targets the kidneys and its function is to increase reabsorption of Na and Excretion K
225
What does the zona fasciculata secrete
Glucocorticoids CORTISOL
226
What does the zona reticularis secrete
Sex hormones ANDROGENS
227
How are the hormones controlled
Humoral
228
An increases in corisol
Cushing disease
229
Secretes melatonin
pineal gland
