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Physiology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

In what order does food travel through the digestive system?

A

Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus

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2
Q

What is the alimentary canal?

A

Tube where food/chyme passes through and the GI tract

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3
Q

What are accessory structures?

A

Aid in digestion/break down food

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4
Q

How many layers does the alimentary canal have?

A

4

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5
Q

The inner most of the alimentary canal is the lumen, what are the four different layers that surround the lumen?

A

Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa

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6
Q

What makes up the mucosa?

A

The epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae

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7
Q

The inner most part of the mucosa

A

epithelium

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8
Q

The part of the mucosa that is the blood and lymphadic vessels, it also contains the mucosa associated lymphatic tissue

A

Lamina propria

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9
Q

The part of the mucosa that makes up the muscles of the mucosa

A

Muscularis mucosae

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10
Q

What does the submucosa do?

A

It contains the blood and lymphatic vessels and contains glands that secrete a digestive enzyme

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11
Q

What does the muscularis contain?

A

The circular muscle and longitudinal muscle

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12
Q

What do the circular muscle and longitudinal muscle do?

A

Movement/propulsion of food/chyme. Mechanical digestion

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13
Q

The entry of food into the alimentary canal (mouth)

A

Ingestion

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14
Q

What are the three methods of propulsion?

A

Peristalsis, gastric emptying, mass movement

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15
Q

The contraction/relaxation of the pharynx that moves food

A

peristalsis

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16
Q

The physical breakdown of material

A

mechanical digestion

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17
Q

Chewing

A

mastication

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18
Q

gastric mixing

A

stomach; mixing around

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19
Q

Intestines; contraction/relaxation that makes chyme move back and forth

A

segmentation

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20
Q

The breakdown of material through enzymatic reactions

A

chemical digestion

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21
Q

Mainly occurs in the intestine (small) when nutrients move from the lumen into the blood stream

A

Absorption

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22
Q

The elimination of waste

A

defication

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23
Q

Synthesis and secretes saliva

A

salivary glands

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24
Q

Maintains the mouth pH and lubricates the bolus

A

saliva

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25
Q

Synthesis and secretes enzymes; moves chewed food into bolus

A

tongue

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26
Q

Breaks down starches

A

salivary amylase

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27
Q

Where does salivary amylase come from and where is it active/inactive?

A

It comes from the salivary glands and is active in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus while it is inactive everywhere else

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28
Q

Breaks down lipids

A

lingual lipase

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29
Q

Where is lingual lipase made and where is it active/inactive?

A

It is made in the tongue, it is inactive in the mouth and active in the stomach

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30
Q

What does the pharynx do?

A

moves air and food

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31
Q

Moves the bolus from the pharynx intro the esophagus

A

upper esophageal sphincter (UES)

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32
Q

The upper 2/3 composed of volintary skeletal muscle and invol smooth muscle. lower 1/3 all smooth

A

esophagus

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33
Q

Prevents gastric juices from entering the esophagus

A

Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)

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34
Q

What digestive processes occur in the stomach?

A

Propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion via pepsin, lingual and gastric lipase

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35
Q

What are the three important parts of the stomach and what are they?

A

The fundus (top) the body, the pylorus (end), rugae (folding that allow stomach to expand)

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36
Q

Creates mucus to lubricate the stomahc

A

surface mucus cells

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37
Q

Synthesis and secretes HCl which kills microorganisms; also contains the intrinsic factor that absorbs B-12`

A

Parietal cell

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38
Q

Synthesis and secretes pepsinogen (inactive protease)

A

Chief Cell

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39
Q

synthesis and secretes hormones; G-Cells secrete gastrin

A

Enteroendocrine cell

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40
Q

What the the three parts of the small intestines?

A

Duodenum, jejunum, lleum

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41
Q

What digestive processes occur in the small intestine?

A

Propulsion, chemical and mechanical digestion, ABSORPTION

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42
Q

What do the circular folds, villi, and microvilli do?

A

They increase surface areas which creates more area for absorption; microvilli also creates brush boarder enzymes

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43
Q

Creates mucus for the small intestine to protect it

A

goblet cells

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44
Q

Secretes and synthesis intestinal jucies

A

Crypt of lieberkuhn

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45
Q

What are the main functions of the large intestines?

A

Finishes absorption of nutrients, forms feces, and eliminates it

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46
Q

What digestive processes are within the large intestines?

A

Absorption, mechanical digestion, propulsion, defecation

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47
Q

Separates the small intestine from the large intestine

A

Ileocecal Sphincter

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48
Q

In what order does food go through the large intestine?

A

Cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, anus

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49
Q

Stores and concentrates bile

A

Gallbladder

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50
Q

What are the 8 things that the liver doess?

A

Synthesizes bile
Removes old red blood cells
Process nutrients after eating
processes nutrients between meals
synthesis hormones
eliminate waste
store essential molecules

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51
Q

Where does bile come from

A

It is synthesized in the liver from cholesterol

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52
Q

The breaking down of fat globules into smaller particles surrounded by water

A

emulsification

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53
Q

What does the pancreas do?

A

Synthesis and secretes pancreatic juices

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54
Q

What are the components of pancreatic juice?

A

Zymogen (inactive enzyme), bicarbonate buffer (Neutralizes HCL from the stomach), Co-Lipase (Aids lipase by loading it onto the lipid), Enzymes (amylase and lipase)

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55
Q

What are the inactive zymogens

A

Trypsinogen
chymotrypsinogen
procarboxypeptidase

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56
Q

Where are zymogens stored and how are they secreted?

A

Stored in zymogen granules (secretory vesicles) secreted via exocytosis

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57
Q

What does the journey of a zymogen look like?

A

Acinar cells s/s zymogens, they go through ducts, to the ampulla of Vader, to the sphincter of oddi

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58
Q

Look at the last slide on the physiology 1 notes

A

Okay

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59
Q

What is the enzyme that breaks down polysaccharides? (starch)

A

amylase

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60
Q

Where is amylase synthesized and secreted?

A

Salivary glands and pancreas

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61
Q

What is starch/glycogen broken down into after coming in contact with amylase?

A

maltose and limit (alpha) dextrins

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62
Q

How is galactose absorbed?

A

It crosses the apical membrane via secondary active cotransport and then it crosses the basolateral membrane via facilitated diffusion

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63
Q

How is fructose absorbed?

A

frucose crosses both the apical and basolateral membrane via facilitated diffusion

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64
Q

What are the enzymes that breakdown proteins?

A

protease

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65
Q

The splitting of polypeptides at the interior bond (small fragments)

A

endopeptidase

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66
Q

The cleaving off of amino acids from the end of polypeptide (singles)

A

Exopeptidase

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67
Q

What is the active versions of the zymogen proteases?

A

Trypsinogen –> Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen–> Chymotrypsin
Procarboxypeptidase–> carboxypeptidase

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68
Q

What are the active and nonactive versions of stomach proteases

A

Pepsinogen (in)
Pepsin (active)

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69
Q

What are the brush boarder proteases?

A

Aminopeptidase
Enterokinase

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70
Q

What zymogens are endo?

A

Trypsin and chymotrypsin

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71
Q

What zymogens are exo?

A

Carbodypeptidase

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72
Q

What is the journey of the absorption of singular amino acids?

A

1.Na/K pump
2.secondary cotransport
3.Facilitated diffusion

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73
Q

What is the journey of the absorption of dipeptides/tripeptides?

A

1.secondary cotransport
2.Di/Tri with epithelial cells break down into amino acids
3. Facilitated diffusion

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74
Q

What are the enzymes that digest lipids?

A

lipase

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75
Q

What do bile salts do?

A

They increase the surface area of droplets by breaking them down into several

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76
Q

Where is lingual lipase secreted and where is it active?

A

Secreted in mouth but is active in the stomach

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77
Q

Where is bile made and stored?

A

made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder

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78
Q

What is the journey of lipids in absorption?

A

They are broken down by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol. They simple diffuse and go to the smooth ER where they are reassembled. They then go to the golgi apparatus where we are transported with chyomicrons into the lymphatic system via the lacteal. Then it is broken into small pieces to enter the blood/

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79
Q

Triglycerides, proteins, and other lipids

A

Chylomicrons

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80
Q

how are chylomicrons digested

A

lipoprotein lipase

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81
Q

What happens to bile salts after they are used?

A

They are recycled back ot the liver

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82
Q

What are some fat-soluable vitamins and where are they absorbed

A

A,D,E,K
With lipids

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83
Q

What are some water soluble vitamins and how are they absorbed

A

B and C
Require carrier proteins

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84
Q

Where does most water absorption occur?

A

Large intestine

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85
Q

The sum of all chemical reactions in your body

A

Metabolism

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86
Q

Polymer of glucose that is made/stored in the liver/muscle.

A

Glycogen

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87
Q

The building of glycogen from excess glucose molecules

A

Glycogenisis

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88
Q

Breaking down of glycogen into individual glucose molecules

A

Glycogenolysis`

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89
Q

First step of cellular respiration, breaking down of glucose into pyruvate to get atp and reduce NAD

A

glycolysis

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90
Q

Catabolic hormone that is synthesized and secreted in alpha cells in pancreas to increase blood glucose levels

A

Glucagon

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91
Q

Hexose monosaccharide used for immediate source of energy

A

Glucose

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92
Q

Causes breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones

A

Catabolic Hormones`

93
Q

What are the three catabolic hormones

A

Cortisol, Glucagon, Epinephrine

94
Q

What do catabolic hormones do?

A

does Glycogenolysis to increase blood glucose levels

95
Q

Cause formation of large molecules from small ones

A

Anabolic hormones

96
Q

What are the anabolic hormones?

A

Insulin and Testosterone

97
Q

What do anabolic hormones do?

A

Do Glycogenesis in order to lower blood glucose

98
Q

What happens to cells that lack ATP?

A

THEY DIE

99
Q

How do we get ATP?

A

Through the food that we eat which turns into glucose and then in turn into ATP

100
Q

What do we do if we lack glucose/glycogen in the body?

A

We use stored fat that breaks down

101
Q

What is the absolute last resort that is a source of ATP?

A

The cannibalization of muscle tissue

102
Q

The loss of electrons

A

Oxidation

103
Q

The gaining of electrons

A

Reduction

104
Q

The complete oxidation in presence of O2

A

Aerobic respiration

105
Q

What are the steps of aerobic respiration?

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. Pyruvate oxidation
  3. Krebs cycle
  4. Oxidative phosphorylation
106
Q

Incomplete oxidation that occurs due to no O2

A

Anaerobic Respiration

107
Q

What are the steps of anaerobic respiration?

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Fermentation
108
Q

The process of turning excess glucose into triglycerides inside adipose tissue

A

Lipoigenesis

109
Q

The process of turning non-carbs into glucose (ex: Pyruvate, Lactate, glycerol)

A

Gluconeogenesis

110
Q

Where does glycolysis take place?

A

Cytoplasm

111
Q

Where does pyruvate oxidation take place?

A

Mitocondria

112
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place?

A

Mitocondria

113
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?

A

Mitocondria

114
Q

How many ATP are produced via the complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecules?

A

36 ATP

115
Q

What are the inputs of glycolysis? (aerobic)

A

2 ATP
2 NAD+
4 ADP

116
Q

What are the outputs of glycolysis? (aerobic)

A

2 pyruvates
2 ADP
2 NADH
4 ATP

117
Q

What are the inputs of pyruvate oxidation?

A

2 pyruvates
2 NAD+
2 CoA

118
Q

What are the outputs of pyruvate oxidation?

A

2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl CoA

119
Q

What are the inputs of the Krebs Cycle?

A

2 Acetyl CoA
6 NAD+
2 FAD
2 ADP

120
Q

What are the outputs of the Krebs Cycle?

A

2 CoA
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
2 Co2

121
Q

What are the inputs for oxidative phosphorylation?

A

10 NADH
2 FADH2
O2
ADP

122
Q

What are the outputs of oxidative phosphorylation?

A

10 NAD+
2 FAD
H2O
ATP

123
Q

What are a few reasons why anaerobic respiration happens?

A

Lack O2
Nonfunctioning Mitochondria
Cell lacks mitochondria

124
Q

What are the inputs of glycolysis? (anaerobic)

A

2 ATP
2 NAD+

125
Q

What are the outputs of glycolysis? (anaerobic)

A

4 ATP
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate

126
Q

What are the inputs of fermentation?

A

2 Pyruvate
NADH

127
Q

What are the outputs of fermentation?

A

NAD+
Lactate

128
Q

The breaking down of fatty acids

A

Lipolysis

129
Q

What do too many ketones do?

A

It makes blood acidic which means DEATH

130
Q

After having acidic blood, excess K+

A

Hyperkalemia

131
Q

How do you eliminate Amino Acids?

A

deaminate
ammonia
Liver
urea
urine

132
Q

The fed state that occurs when the body is absorbing nutrients

A

Absorptive state

133
Q

What does the absorptive state do?

A

Increases blood glucose and amino acids

134
Q

Where does insulin comes from and what does it do?

A

Comes from beta cells in pancreas. and decreases blood glucose. It also increases synthesis for lipids glycogen and protein

135
Q

The fasted state which occurs when there is no food intake

A

Postabsoprtive state

136
Q

What does the postabsorptive state do?

A

Blood glucose is lower

137
Q

Where does glucagon comes from and what does it do?

A

It is released from alpha cells and raises blood glucose. It also increases glycogenolysis, gluconrogenesis, and ketogenesis

138
Q

Where does glucagon comes from and what does it do?

A

It is released from alpha cells and raises blood glucose. It also increases glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis

139
Q

The classification based on what they do\

A

Functional classification

140
Q

Classification based on the chemical properties of messengers

A

Chemical classification

141
Q

When the cells communicate with each other without an intermediaate

A

Direct communication

142
Q

Pore between two cells that allows ions and solutes to pass through

A

Gap Junction

143
Q

Secretes the ligand

A

secretory cell

144
Q

Is there a specific name for the secretory and target cells in paracrines?

A

NO

145
Q

Where do the messages of pacarines go?

A

Interstitial fluid

146
Q

Do the secretory cells and target cells of paracrine need to be close or far away from each other?

A

Close

147
Q

Do neurotransmitters have specific names for their secretory and target cells?

A

Secretory- pre-synoptic neuron
Target- Post-synoptic neuron

148
Q

Where do the messages of neurotransmitters go?

A

Interstitial fluid

149
Q

Do the secretory cell and target cell need to be close or far for neurotransmitters?

A

Close

150
Q

Is there a specific name for the secretory and target cell of hormones?

A

Secretory- Endocrine cell

151
Q

Where do the messages go for hormones?

A

Interstital fluid and blood

152
Q

Do the secretory cells and target cells need to be close or far for hormones?

A

Far away

153
Q

What is the chemical class of neurotranmitters?

A

Amino acids, amines, or [proteins

154
Q

What is the chemical class of paracrines?

A

Amines or proteins

155
Q

What is the chemical class of hormones

A

Steroids, amines, or proteins

156
Q

What does half-life mean?

A

How long it takes for half of something to be used or disappear

157
Q

Are amino acids lipophilic or lipophobic?

A

Lipophobic

158
Q

Are amines lipophilic or lipophobic?

A

Lipophobic except for thyroid

159
Q

Are peptides lipophobic or lipophilic?

A

Lipophobic

160
Q

Are steroids lipophilic or lipophobic

A

Lipophilic

161
Q

When are lipophilic chemicals synthesised?

A

on demand

162
Q

When are lipophobic chemicals synthesised?

A

Independent of demand (stored up)

163
Q

How are amino acids transported?

A

In the intersitial fluid only

164
Q

How are amines transported?

A

In the interstital fluid or blood

165
Q

How are peptide/proteins transported?

A

Interstitial fluid or blood

166
Q

How are steroids transported?

A

Blood only

167
Q

How to lipophobic things travel through blood?

A

by dissolving in the plasma

168
Q

How do lipophilic things travel through the blood?

A

Bound to a carrier protein

169
Q

What is the halflife of lipophic things?

A

Short

170
Q

What is the halflife of lipophilic things

A

Long

171
Q

how strong the interaction is between messenger and receptors

A

Affinity

172
Q

If we increase the affinity between the messenger and the receptor then what happens to the likelihood of binding?

A

Increase

173
Q

A chemical that binds to receptors and mimics a normal response

A

Agonist

174
Q

Competes with normal ligands for the same binding sight

A

antagonist

175
Q

binding within the cell

A

Intracellular mediated response

176
Q

Binding on the cell membrane

A

Membrane bound mediated response

177
Q

When is a ligand gated channel fast?

A

When the receptor and channel are the same protein

178
Q

When the receptor and channel are the same protein

A

Ionotropic

179
Q

When is a ligand gated channel slow?

A

When the receptor and the channel are different proteins

180
Q

When the receptor and the channel are different proteins

A

metabotropic

181
Q

How do you activate a G-protein

A

Ligand binds
GDP falls off
GTP comes on
Alpha subunit slides over

182
Q

How do you inactive a G-protein

A

Ligand falls off
GTP into GDP
Alpha subunit slides back

183
Q

Messenger binds to receptor and activates G protein slides over and opens

A

Direct coupling

184
Q

Messenger activated g protein which activates amplifer which acitvates a second messenger

A

Second messenger system

185
Q

What are the two types of G proteins

A

Gi- inhibitory
Gs- stimulatory

186
Q

What are the three amplifier enzymes

A

Adenylate cyclase
Guanylate cyclase
Phospholipase C

187
Q

What is the insulin receptor

A

Tyrosine kinase

188
Q

A receptor detects ion concentration or metabolic concentration in plasma to keep the balance

A

Humoral

189
Q

Comes from central or peripheral system and neurons release the hormone

A

Neural

190
Q

When another hormone causes release of another hormone

A

Hormonal

191
Q

An impt gland in regulation of hormones

A

Pituitary gland

192
Q

The part of the pituitary that doesn’t produce hormones but stores hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus

A

Posterior pituitary

193
Q

The part of the pituitary that makes hormones

A

Anterior pituitary

194
Q

How are hormones released into the blood

A

Exocytosis

195
Q

Regulates hormone secretion by another endocrine gland

A

Topic hormone

196
Q

What causes the secretion of cortisol?

A

Stress that stimulates the hypothalmas (CRH) which binds to receptors on anterior pituitary that releases ACTh which secretes cortisol

197
Q

Hormones that release at certain times of the dayu

A

Circadian Rhythm

198
Q

Secreting too much hormones

A

Hypersecreted

199
Q

Not secreting enough hormones

A

Hyposecretion

200
Q

A problem that is within the final endocrine gland

A

Primary disorder

201
Q

A problem with the anterior pituitary or hypothalmus

A

Secondary disorder

202
Q

Having a functioning adenoma causes

A

Hypersecretion

203
Q

Having a non-functioning adenoma means

A

Hyposecretion

204
Q

What hormones does that posterior pituitary secrete

A

Oxytocin and ADH which are stored in the PP and synthesized in the hypothalamus

205
Q

What is ADH produced by and what does it target/do?

A

Produced- paraventricular nuclei of hypothal
Targets- kidneys
Does- Regulates H2O and osmolarity balance within the plasma

206
Q

What is Oxytocin produced by and what does it target/do?

A

Produced- supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus
Targets- Uterus and breast tissue
Does- Contractions and increase milk let down

207
Q

What stimulates ADH release?

A

Pain, stress, nicotine

208
Q

What inhibits ADH release?

A

ALcohol

209
Q

If you have high levels of ADH you…

A

You pee alot

210
Q

Causes GH hypersecretion after puberty, what is the result?

A

Acromegaly, soft tissue enlargement

211
Q

Causes GH hypersecretion before puberty, what is the result?

A

Gigantism, bone growth

212
Q

What does the thyroid secrete?

A

Thyroid hormone and calcitonin

213
Q

Make up the wall of folicles

A

Follicular cells

214
Q

What do C cells secrete?

A

Calcitonin

215
Q

What do follicular cells secrete and do

A

Secrete thyroidglobin and bring in iodide

216
Q

What hormones control Ca balance

A

Calcitonin and PTH

217
Q

What does PTH stand for?

A

Para thyroid Hormone

218
Q

Breaksdown bone to increase calcium in the plasma

A

Osteoclasts

219
Q

functions of Calcitonin

A

Decreases Ca concentration in the blood stream

220
Q

Functions of PTH

A

Raises Ca concentration in the blood stream

221
Q

Where are the adrenal glands and what are the two parts of it

A

On top of the kidneys: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla

222
Q

What are the different parts of the adrenal cortex?

A

Zona Glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, Zona Reticularis

223
Q

What does the zona glomerulosa secrete?

A

Mineralcorticoids ALDOSTERONE

224
Q

What does aldosterone target and what is its function?

A

Targets the kidneys and its function is to increase reabsorption of Na and Excretion K

225
Q

What does the zona fasciculata secrete

A

Glucocorticoids CORTISOL

226
Q

What does the zona reticularis secrete

A

Sex hormones ANDROGENS

227
Q

How are the hormones controlled

A

Humoral

228
Q

An increases in corisol

A

Cushing disease

229
Q

Secretes melatonin

A

pineal gland

Physiology (5 decks)

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