Exam 2 Flashcards
Independent Variable
The variable which is deliberately changed or manipulated to determine its effect on the dependent variable
Dependent Variable
The variable which responds to changes in the independent variable
Types of tissue
connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
define organelle
a small structure within the cytoplasm which carries out a particular function
label a cell diagram
check ON
Compare hypertonic and hypotonic
Hyper - less inside the cell
Hypo - more inside the cell
Vesicular Transport
Materials move into or out of the cell enclosed in vesicles
Exocytosis (movement out of cell)
Endocytosis (movement into cell)
describe cell metabolism and explain its function
Metabolism: all the chemical reactions that take place in cells
The 2 types are catabolic and anabolic
Function: converting food into energy
anabolic reactions
o When smaller molecules are built up into larger ones
o Smaller units + energy molecules
o Eg. Protein synthesis
catabolic reactions
o When large molecules are broken down to smaller ones
o Molecules smaller units + energy
o Eg. Digestion
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP
6 nutrient groups
water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins
describe glycolysis
the metabolic process that serves as the foundation for both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration
compare atp and adp
ATP = 3 Phosphate and Higher Energy Form
ADP = 2 Phosphate and Lower Energy Form
identify the nutrients responsible for efficient metabolic functioning
carbs
lipids
proteins
describe the following in relation to: Carbs, Lipids, Proteins
- their structure
- building blocks
- function
- dietary sources
Carbs
BB = Monosaccharides
F = Provide energy
Lipids
BB = Glycerol and Fatty acids
F = Stores energy
Proteins
BB = amino acids
F = Repair and build bodies tissues
how can enzymes lower activation energy
Enzymes generally lower activation energy by reducing the energy needed for reactants to come together and react
characteristics of enzymes
They are affected by pH and temperature.
Can function in either direction.
Speed up reaction
Lock and Key model
Enzymes break the substrate down
Enzymes are specific for the substrate, similar to keys in a lock
Active site has the same conformation as a substrate
Different shaped substrates will bind
what occurs when enzymes denature
it no longer works
label heart diagram
check ON
Cardiac Cycle
- Deoxygenated blood from body flows into the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava
- Right atrium contracts pumping blood through tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
- RV contracts forcing the pulmonary valve to open as blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery
- Oxygenated blood flows into left atrium via the pulmonary veins
- the left atrium contracts to pump blood through mitral valve into the left ventricle
- left ventricle contracts allowing blood to be pumped into the aorta and around the body
Cardiac Cycle
- Deoxygenated blood from body flows into the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava
- Right atrium contracts pumping blood through tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
- RV contracts forcing the pulmonary valve to open as blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery
- Oxygenated blood flows into left atrium via the pulmonary veins
- the left atrium contracts to pump blood through mitral valve into the left ventricle
- left ventricle contracts allowing blood to be pumped into the aorta and around the body
What is the role of the Sinoaortic node
The rhythm of the heart is controlled
Compare atrial and ventricular diastole with atrial and ventricular systole
Diastole: Ventricles and atria relax together and expand
Systole: ventricles are relaxed and expanded but the atrial is contracted forcing blood into ventricles
how is heart beat and bp measured
Heart Beat = BPM
BP = Systolic pressure/ diastolic pressure
S and F of Arterie
S: thick, muscular and elastic walls
no valves
F: carry blood away from heart
S and F of Vein
S: thin, and little muscle walls
valves which prevent back flow
F: carry blood towards the heart
S and F of Capillaries
S: microscopic, one layered cells
F: carry blood close to nearly every cell
Composition of Blood
1) RBC aka Erythrocytes
40-45% of blood
2) WBC aka Leucocytes
1% of blood
3) Plasma
44% of blood
composition and function of plasma
C: mixture of water and dissolved substances alike sugar and salts
F: helps you recover from injury and removes waste
S and F Erythrocytes
RBC
s: concaved, contains hemoglobin
f: transportation
S and F Leucocytes
WBC
S: larger
F: remove dead or injured cells and invading micro organisms
S and F Platelets
Thrombocytes
S: small, cell fragments with no nucleus
F: blood clotting
Compare mechanical and chemical digestion using examples
MD: physically breaking down larger molecules.
i.e mouth chewing, stomach churning food
CD: chemically breaking down larger molecules with the assistance of
Chemical digestion of protein, carbohydrates and lipids
Proteins - Peptides and AA
Carbs - Monosaccharides
Lipids - Fatty Acids and glycerol
process of deamination
Deamination is the removal of an amine group from a molecule.
Occurs in the liver
Amino acid undergoes transamination in which glutamate is produced which is deaminated forming the ammonium group
Formation of Urine
Occurs in nephron
Blood enters through the afferent arteriole into the bowmans capsule
in the bowmans capsule blood is filtered out from the capillaries and the filtrate is formed
It then goes through the Proximal Convoluted Tubule where Na, K and Cl are reabsorbed alongside water and amino acids
Then it goes through the loop of henle where water and Na ions are reabsorbed into the bloodstream
Finally, it goes through the distal convoluted tubule where water and glucose are filtered out
The filtrate then exits through the collecting duct before reaching the urethra
Sliding Filament Theory
Mechanism by which muscles are though to contract
Muscles-> Muscle Fibres->myofibrils-> sarcomere->actin and myosin
Acetylcholine causes depolarization which releases calcium which binds to tropomyosin. Myosin attaches to actin forming a crossbridge. The crossbridge is broken by the breakdown of atp which contracts the muscle. This process is repeated until the muscle is fully contracted
types of joints
Fixed
Slightly Moveable
Freely Moveable
DNA vs RNA
DNA -> Double stranded whereas RNA-> single stranded
DNA -> Deoxyribose sugar whereas RNA-> Ribonucleic acid
DNA-> nitrogenous bases are A,C,G,T whereas RNA -> A,C,G,U (uracil)
Function of DNA -> contains instructions for cell reproduction
Function of RNA -> mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Types of RNA
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
Transcription
o Transcription: the process of forming a strand of RNA from a strand of DNA
o Occurs in the nucleus
1. RNA polymerase binds to a site on the DNA molecule called the promoters
2. RNA polymerase separates the DNA strand (unzips them)
3. One strand of DNA is used as a template
4. New nucleotides are inserted according to the base pairing rules. When transcribing RNA, adenine pairs with uracil and cytosine pairs with guanine
5. This continues until the terminator is reached
6. As the RNA polymerase moves along the DNA molecule, hydrogen bonds between the two strands are reformed
7. A single stranded RNA molecule has been transcribed
Translation
o Translation: the process by which a protein is synthesised from the information contained in molecule of mRNA
o Has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination
1. In the nucleus, DNA transcribes RNA
2. The RNA is then sent to the cytoplasm in the form of mRNA
3. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome
4. As each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome by tRNA. The amino acids are linked up in the right order on the ribosome
5. The ribosome hitches the amino acids together with peptide bonds and polypeptides are made
6. Polypeptides are sent to the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus where they are modified and shaped into functioning proteins
label the respiratory system
check ONM
label the excretory system
check ON
Mitosis
Mitosis: type of cell division that results in two daughter cells
o Prophase:
Nucleolus disappears
Nuclear membrane breaks down
Centrioles move to opposite poles
Chromosomes appear as pair of chromatids
Spindle formation
o Metaphase
Nucleus dissolves
The cell’s chromatids condense and move together
Chromatids line up on the spindle at equator of cell
o Anaphase
Chromatids separate (now chromosomes)
Move to opposite ends of cell
o Telophase
Spindle disappears
Nucleoli and nuclear membranes reform
Meiosis
o A type of cell division producing sex cells (gametes – sperm + ova)
o Has 2 rounds of PMAT
1st division: reduction in chromosome number
2nd division: separation of chromatids to form chromosomes
o Prophase 1:
Pairs of chromatids become visible
Nuclear membrane disappears and centrioles move to opposite poles
Crossing over of homologous chromosomes occur
o Metaphase 1:
Pairs of chromosomes live themselves up along the middle of the cell
o Anaphase 1:
Spindle fibres from the centrioles are attached to chromosomes and begin to pull them to opposite ends of the cell
o Telophase 1:
Splitting into 2 cells + cytoplasm begins to split (cytokinesis)
o Prophase 2:
Centrioles move to opposite ends of cells
Spindle fibres form
o Metaphase 2:
Chromatids line up at the equator
o Anaphase 2:
Spindle fibres pull chromatids to opposite ends of cells (now called chromosomes)
o Telophase 2:
cytoplasm divides to form another 2 cells (total of 4 cells)
Mitosis Vs Meiosis
Differences:
Mitosis
- 2 identical daughter cells
- 46 chromosomes (diploid)
- Function; growth and repair
- Somatic daughter cells produced
Meiosis
- 4 different daughter cells
- 23 chromosomes (haploid)
- Function; production of gametes
- Gametes produces
Sim:
Mitosis and meiosis take place in the cell nuclei.
Both involve cell division.
label male reproductive system
label female reproductive system
oogenesis
o Oogenesis: production of ovum
o Occurs in the ovaries
o Oogonia are diploid cells that divide by mitosis to form a primary oocyte (diploid)
o Primary oocyte (diploid) undergoes the first stage of mitosis to form 1 secondary oocyte (haploid)
o Secondary oocyte undergoes second stage of mitosis, which results in 2 cells of unequal size
Larger cell develops into an ovum
Smaller cell is the 2nd polar body
o The first polar body undergoes second meiotic division to form the 2 additional polar bodies
spermatogenesis
o Spermatogenesis: the production of sperm
o Occurs inside the seminiferous tubules of each testis
o Primary spermatocytes undergo the first stage of mitosis – produces 2 secondary spermatocytes (haploid)
o 2 secondary spermatocytes produce 2 haploid spermatids each
o Results in 4 spermatids (haploid)
o Final stage involves the maturation of spermatids to spermatozoa
Menstrual cycle
- Menstruation 1-4 days Uterine bleeding, accompanied by shedding of the endometrium
- Preovulation 5-12 days Endometrial repair begins
Development of ovarian follicle
Uterine lining gradually thickens - Ovulation 13-15 days Rupture of mature follicle
Releasing of egg - Secretion 16-20 days Secretion of watery mucus by glands of endometrium, cervix and fallopian tubes
Movement and breakdown of unfertilised egg
Development of corpus luteum - Premenstruation 21-28 days Degeneration of corpus luteum
Deterioration of endometrium
Hormones
o FSH (follicle stimulating hormone):
Produced in the pituitary gland
Targets the ovaries and testes
Stimulates production of ova and oestrogen secretion by ovaries
Stimulates production of sperm by testes
o LH (luteinising hormone):
Produced in the pituitary gland
Targets ovaries and testes
Stimulates secretion of oestrogen by ovaries
Stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
Stimulates production of progesterone by corpus luteum, stimulates testosterone production by testes
o Oestrogen:
Produced in the ovaries, placenta, and testes
Targets uterus, vagina, and breasts
Stimulates the development, thickening and vascularisation of endometrium
Produces female secondary characteristics
o Progesterone: produced in the corpus luteum and placenta
Targets the endometrium of the uterus
Maintains the thick and spongy endometrium
Stimulates development of mammary gland
labour
1) 1st completely dilated cervix
the uterus, cervix and vagina form a single, curved passage
2) Expulsion
- water breaks
- foetus moves through the fully dilated cervix
3) After Birth
- umbilical cord clamped and cut
- uterus continues to contract
