Exam 2 Flashcards
what are some general considerations to take into account when choosing who to include in your study?
choosing accurate samples and populations
the date you collect will depend on…
who is supplying it
example of how samples effect data?
Q: in the last year, did you support the arts?
- the results you collect will depend on the education levels of the participants
what is a sample?
the people who you actually collect data from
what is a population?
people who could’ve been in your sample,, it is the general group of research that your research should represent
where does a sample come from?
your study population
what is an example of a sample v. a population
sample: your friends on campus
population: Centre college students that you know
what kind of population does our class represent?
psych and BNS majors
what is the goal when choosing a sample?
to find a sample that will represent a population well
a good sample should…
- increase generalizability
why is increasing generalizability difficult?
often we are forced to settle for people that we have easy access to
what is a convenience sample?
a sample that is taken just because the researcher has easy access to it
what are the different ways that you can sample a population
- random and nonrandom sampling
what is random sampling?
- the best way to sample
- every person in the population has an equal chance of being picked
what is a challenge to random sampling?
it can be difficult in large populations to have everyone’s contact number
what is nonrandom sampling?
- the most common form of sampling
- you use who you have access to
what is an example of a nonrandom sample here at centre
intro to psych students
what is a problem with nonrandom sampling
it limits generalizeability and you end up with WEIRD participants
what is a WEIRD participant
Westernized
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic
what percentage of the global population is WEIRD?
what percentage of research subjects are WEIRD?
12%
67%
what does it mean to sell samples?
companies will sell researchers access to broader samples
ex.) amazon will post a survey for a researcher on their website for people to go in to fill out for money, then they will report it back to the researcher
what is a problem with selling samples?
the results can be biased:
- participants may have a lower income as they are doing them for extra cash
- participants most likely have a higher understanding of technology
- participants can lie on these surveys
what are the two types of research setting?
field and lab
what is lab research?
when participants are RECRUITED (they come to you)
- the research environment stays the same
what is field research?
participants are FOUND (you go to them)
- the research environment changes
all participation in research must be…
voluntary
what are some biases that volunteers can have that make them different than then the average person?
- more highly educated
- higher social class
- more need for approval
- more social
- more arousal seeking (need excitement)
- more agreeable (go with the flow)
- more willing to tolerate stress
what is the “white coat effect?”
when participants get stressed that they are being observed so they may act differently
what is deception?
when participants are not told all of the information about a study in order to answer certain questions or make certain observations more effective
- done to avoid reactivity
normally participants are …. in a study
fully informed
what is reactivity?
when participants act different than normal which effects the study
(people care that they are being watched)
what are some examples of some situations in which reactivity might play a role?
shopping behavior
child research
bystander apathy
what is an example of a study where deception was used?
Brewer office memory study
what are some problems that arise with deception?
- creates skeptical participation
- creates negative attitudes
what is skeptical participation?
- lack of participant trust
- reduces future involvement in research
- causes the reputations overspill effect
what is the reputations overspill effect?
when deception causes a bad taste in a participants mouth, they tend to give all research a bad reputation even if they are not being deceptive
what are negative attitudes?
- possible loss of self esteem
- feelings about being manipulated
- shame
what is an example of a study that used deception where negative attitudes were a large issue
milgram shock
what are the two types of deception
active and passive
what is active deception
- misrepresenting the study on purpose
ie) telling the participant that you are studying perception when actually you are studying conformity - using pseudosubjects
what is an example of a study that used active deception?
asch line experiment
what are some things that you cannot do when using deception?
- you cannot break a promise to a participant
you cannot tell someone you will pay them and then
back out - you cannot use placebos without the participants knowledge
you cannot tell someone that they are getting a
treatment when they are not
what is passive deception?
- concealing observations
- using an unrecognized condition
what are some examples of concealing observations?
- researchers observing from behind a mirror
- the use of hidden cameras
what is an example of using an unrecognized condition>
- the participant was in one condition but there is also another condition that they could’ve been in that they were not aware of
if you are to use deception, you must…
debrief the participant
what is a debriefing?
when the participant is told the true nature of the deceptive study after the fact
- they must happen immediately after
- they should restore trust with the researcher, and validate any feelings or behaviors the participant has or did
a debriefing should promote…
a positive view of science
what are the Holmes Debriefing Steps?
- disclosure of the studies true purpose
- explanation of the deception used
- validate feelings of mistrust
- argue for the necessity of the deception
what is an alternate to using deception? Why?
role playing
- participants can still behave in a natural way that fits the situation
what is role playing
when participants act as though they are in a particular situation but it is not a real situation
what is an example of an experiment where role playing was used?
zimbardos prison experiment
why do participants sometimes express reactivity?
- they are stressed they are being watched (white coat effect)
- they are motivated to avoid embarrassment
-they want to be more agreeable with others
what are the two types of role attitudes?
cooperative and negative
what is a cooperative role attitude?
the participant wants to please the researcher
what is a negative role attitude?
participants try to ruin the experiement
who can show reactivity
participants and the researchers
what are demand characteristics
cues that are given to suggest to the participant what responses are expected of them
- participants try to guess the hypothesis and then respond to it
what is an example of researcher reactivity?
experimenter bias
what is experimenter bias
when the researchers expectations influence what is observed
- confirmation bias
- the researcher may expect women to eat smaller portions so they look for women who have plates with smaller portions
how do we solve the problem of experimenter bias?
double blind experiment
what is a double blind?
no one in the study knows what is being tested and what they are testing for
what are the two different types of data?
quantitative
qualitative
what is quantitative data?
numerical data
statistical tests
what is qualitative data?
shows subtle differences
up for interpretation
ex.) body language
think back to the prisoner throwing the ball experiment…. what is a qualitative decription for how active the prisoner is
the prisoner is performing low intensity physical activity
what are the 6 common non experimental techniques?
- naturalistic observation
- ethnography
- sociometry
- archival research
- meta-analysis
- case - study
what is naturalistic observation?
observing subjects in their natural environments without involvement from the researcher
what is a benefit to naturalistic observation?
it avoids reactivity
- can be hidden
- you can make a pop. used to your presence
- you can make indirect observations
what is ethnography?
observing subjects in their natural environment with involvement from the researcher
- the population knows that you are recording
- value of personal perspective
- different observational perspectives
what is observation perspective?
can include a participant observer or a nonparticipant observer
participant: the researchers becomes a group member
nonparticipant: the researcher stays an outsider
what was the schouten 1995 study?
studies consumer behavior and identity,, harley davidson motorcycle culture
- the researchers became motorcyclists in order to understand bikers and their loyalties
what does the method section of a paper include in a an ethnography study with a participant observer?
the researchers involvement
what are the steps a participant observer must take?
1.access the field
- find a safe and joinable group
2. gain entry into a group
- become knowledgeable in the culture
3. become invisible as a researcher
- relationships, participate in traditions
4. observe, record, and analyze data
- keep careful record, find trends
what is sociometry?
identifying relationships within a social structure
how do we map relationships within a social structure?
using sociograms
what are the parts to a sociogram?
- entities (circles)
- interaction (lines)
- centrality (key figures)
- density (% of entity interactions)
what is case study research?
a descriptive and unique study of a single individual
what are different things that a case study may look at
- rare diseases
- extraordinary ability
- unique experience
what was an example of a case study involving an extraordinary disease?
Krickitt Carpenter who got into a car accident and was diagnosed with amnesia
what is an example of a case study involving an extraordinary ability
scott flansburg and his mental math
what is a case study involving unique experiences?
holocaust survivors
what is archival research?
answering a question by studying existing records
what are examples of things that would be studied in archival research?
- historical accounts
- court records
-police reports
-medical records - social media data
what is an example of a historical perspective? What is a way that we can research this?
How did people react to Avicii’s death? We can go back and look at old tweets
what effect has the internet age had on archival history?
the internet age has made archival history very accessible
what is the wayback machine?
a website that takes snapshots of historical data all across the web
what is metaanalysis?
using statistics to combine and compare the data from separate studies
what is an examples of a meaanalysis that we talked about in class?
Griswold alcohol analysis
- asked if alc could be beneficial to your health? Searched all available studies and put together a statistical analysis of their results
Robins College outcome study:
- asked what factors determine whether someone will do well in college
- asks what variables are associated with GPA and retention
what are the steps to metaanalysis?
- Locate relevant research
2.indentify comparable variables
- common variables between studies - conduct statistical analysis to observe patterns across all studies
what types of studies need to be used in metaanalysis?
studies witih quantitative data
how could we operationally define grit?
- years of participation in an activity
- number of rebounded failures
- time taken until giving up
what happens a lot of times to methods?
they change
a good measure needs to be…
reliable and valid
what is reliability?
the ability of the measure to produce a similar result under similar conditions
what is validity?
your study measures what it is supposed to measure
what is an example of a theory that turned out to not be valid?
phrenology,, was once thought to measure intelligence
how do we measure variables?
- tradition
- new techniques
- available equiptment
what does it mean to measure something through tradition?
measures the variable the way that other studies have done before
what is an example of traditional measure
angela duckworths grit survey
what does it mean to measure something through new techniques
applies new methods that were generated in other research fields to new research fields
what is an example of measure through new techniques?
apply fmri’s from neuroscience to look at the brains of people with high and low grit
what does it mean to measure a variable through available equipment?
choose your operational definition based on whta you have access to
what is an example of measure through available equipment?
using steady handgrip to measure self control
does grit predict educational success?
education and grit are correlated, but grit does not only apply to education
- this take is not reliable
reliability and validity scale:
- reliable and valid:
150, 150, 150 - reliable and not valid
140, 140, 140 - not reliable and not valid
151, 155, 160 (avg. 150) - not reliable and not valid
115, 350,240
what are the three different categories of measures?
-behavioral: observable
- self -report: subjective
- physiological: objective
what are behavioral measures?
recording observed behavior
what are the two types of observed behaviors
-frequency behavior
-latency behavior
what is frequency behavior?
-count data
- how many times a person does something
what is latency behavior
- time data
- how long did it take someone to do a certain behavior
is it better to watch recordings or in person?
depends
what are self report measures?
collecting subjective survey responses
what are some examples of self report measures?
rating scales
Q sorting
what is q sorting?
asking a participant to sort something based on a question
what are the divisions of self report?
retrospective surveys
prospective surveys
state report
trait report
self-report
informant report
what is retrospective survey
past tense survery
- what did you do
what is a prospective survey>
furture tense
-what will you do?
what is a state report survery?
immediate behavior
- how hungry are you right now?
what is a trait report
on average
- on average how hungry are you
what do marketing psychologists study?
-audience
-perceptions
-attention
- memory
what is a self report survey?
answer for yourself
- when shopping how likely are you to make an impulse purchase
what is informant report:
answer for someone else
- when shopping how likely is someone else to purchase x
what are physiological measures?
you record physiological data
what are types of physiological measures can you record
autonomic response
event processing
what is an example of an autonomic response
ex.) heart rate or sweating during a vehicle test drive
what is an example of event processing
-eye movements
-brain activity
what are the challenges to measuring variables?
-floor effects
-ceiling effects
-timing
what is the floor effect?
all values you get are very low, no one does what you observe
what is a ceiling effect?
all values are very high, everyone does what you observe
what are some issues with timing?
when and for how long you do your study can have impacts on the data that you collect
what i a way to combat the issue of timing?
keep good notes that can explain a 3rd variable
what are some issues with behavioral measures?
-some behaviors are hard to see
what are some issues with self report measures
-people lie
-poorly worded/biased questions
what are some issues with physiologicla measures?
-can be invasive
-can intrude on normal behavior
-requires special equiptment
how can you avoid some issues with measurements?
pilot testing?
what is pilot testing?
naïve participants experience your study without collecting data
they read it and look for points of confusion
what did the world medical institution establish in 196?
all research institutions should have a “review board” to dertermine research methids
what was research like before 1950?
you could do whatever you want, with the exception of like murder and normal laws
what is research like today?
- people recieve training in research ethics
- you apply for research projetc approval
what is research ethics training?
teaching the laws and rules that apply to your research without being a lawyer
what is CITI training and certification?
collaborative institutional training initiative (university of Miami)
series of online courses that give you a background in research regulations
what is an IRB and what does it do?
institutional review board
-ensure research adhere to ethical guidelines
-local authority that approves research based on risk to the participants
once you get CITI certified you can
start planning your research project for IRB approval
and IRB is a part of every organization that
recieves federal funding
- performs research with people or animals
- uses reseach beyond observation
members of the IRB are
-local to the institution and have no connection to the project that is being reviewed, and they cannot stand to profit
when proposing research to the IRB yo ugive them
participant centered information
what is participant centered information?
who is your sample/population
how will you contact participants?
what do you plan to do with their data
what are the possible risks to participants
what is a risk to benefit ratio
researchers weight the potential risks and benefits that come with a study to deem if one outweighs the other
what is risk
negative consequences of participation
low risk (the participant might feel uncomfortable
high risk (the participant might go blind)
what is benefit
positive outcome from participation
low (you reciee 5$)
high (your phobia is sucessfully cured)
the risk to benefit ration depends on
time, situation, culture
what are he categories of risk
exempt research
expedited research
full review research
what is exempt research?
(psych 205)
-no abnormal risk in the study
-collection of anonymous or publicly available data
- naturalistic observation
what is expedited research?
(psych 210)
- minimal risk to the subject
- collection of physiological or biological data
- use of any pictures video or audio resources
what is full review research?
-more than minimal risk to himan subjects
the risk category is established by
a quiz
to pass as exempt a study needs to score a
5/5
what are the questions asked in the risk category quiz?
- is there use of special populations
- is their use of deception
- is their risk of participant information privacy
- is there potentially stigmatizing data
- are there potential log term effects for the participants
