Chapter 2 Flashcards
when we hypothesize outcomes, we:
- make a tentative explanation that can be testes and rejected
- make it specific to a single question in a single research
what are the characteristics of a hypothesis?
- minimal evidence
- applied to specific variables
- predictive of a specific situation
what makes a a hypothesis a theory?
when a hypothesis is consistently supported (there isn’t really a magic number for how many times it’s basically just when the theory becomes widely accepted
what is the definition of a theory
a scientifically accepted and well supported explanation used to pedict future things
what is a major goal of science in regards to theories?
establish and test theories
example of theory
child cognitive development stage theory
what are characteristics of a theory?
- substantiated
- broadly predictive
if a theory has enough support it then becomes a…
law
theories can also be…
models
what is a model?
a theory based on specific agreed upon variables
what is an example of a model
modal model of memory:
3 agreed upon variables:
- sensory memory
- short term memory
- long term memory
what are the two theories of self control?
1: self control is unlimited
2. self control is limited and can be exhausted
what is the social impact theory model
predicts cases when peer pressure is effective (SIN)
SxIxN
s- strength of the influence
I - immediacy of the influence
N- number of influences
what are computational models?
models that predict exact values as outcomes,, they apply numbers to variables to predict an outcome
what is an example of a computational model?
Fitt’s law model: commonly used software that measures mouse movement times
how are theories limited?
theoretical domain/scope
what is theoretical domain/scope
the range of situations the theory can be applied to
what is an example of a theory limitation in action
Miller magic # theory:
- you can remember 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
- but other researchers found that the results differed when what you were you trying to remember is objects
are all theories universally accepted?
no
what is an example of a theory that is not universally accepted?
the theory of self control
-Mauraven and Baumeister self control is limited but the more you resist temptation the less likely you are to give into it in the fututre
- Job and Inzlinct: self control is unlimited because if you give someone a pep talk then they can keep perservering
we can only be confident in a theories domain if?
the theory has been tested previously
science always needs to apply new theories to…
existing domains so we can confirm or disconfirm its uses
what is confirmational data?
compare your observation to what the theory would predict
if it matches then the theory is strengthened
ex.) there is a theory that people tend to view themselves as above average in most positive traits
- in a study 93% of people say they are an above average driver, so the theory works here therefore the theory is strengthened
what is disconfirmational data?
when you compare your observation to what the theory would predict and it does not match then the theory is weakened
example using the above average theory:
- in china <50% of people said they were above average drivers therefore the theory is weakened
is weakening a theory bad?
no science is always looking for new information
what is a sign of healthy science?
the end of weakening theories and the formation of new and stronger theories
ie) the existence of superior or inferior genders
what is causal directionality?
one way causation
ex.) alcohol reduces reaction times
but reduced reaction times do not cause you to get drunk
what is causal bidirectionality?
variables that cause change to each other
ex.) body weight and exercise
what is the difference between a causal relationship and a correlational relationship
a correlational relationship simply shows that two variables are connected but does not prove that one causes the other
ex.) the use of nightlights and poor eyesight later in life: correlational (they are related but not causal)
what is a prime example of a correlational relationship
the use of videogames and the tendency to be violent
- they may be correlated but there is more likely a variable C that is causing the kids to be violent and is also impacting their videogame playing habits
what is the 3rd variable problem
in a correlational relationship we do not know if a third variable is causing what we really se
what are examples of 3rd variables in the video game issue?
- home violence
- anger
- self esteem
- parental negligence
what is the directionality problem?
if we cannot show cause then we cannot show causal direction
- we assume videogame usage causes bullying but what if really bullying causes videogame usage?
what happens in correlational research?
some relationships occur completely by accident
what is a spurious relationship?
when 2 variables covary by happenstance
what is an example of a spurious relationship?
nic cage movies put out in a year and number of annual drownings
why do we use correlational designs?
some variables cannot or should not be manipulated
ie.) are those with PTSD more likely to be divorced
- you should not give someone PTSD
how does experimental research differ from correlational research?
the way variables are handled,, in experiemental research variables are manipulated whereas in correlational they are just observed
In an experiment variables can be… or…
manupilated (forced to vary)
or controlled (forced to stay the same)
why is experimental research hard to conduct?
they tend to be more time consuming and extremely expensive
variables whose values are chosen are called..
IV’s (idependent variables)
each version of an IV is called a…
level
what is the minimum number of levels that you can have?
2
what are other terms for an individual level?
treatment, condition, group
A researcher did an experiement in which they tested the enthusiasm of a fan based on the clothing they wore.. they gave some people a white t shirt, others a team t shirt, and the rest they decked out head to toe in gear. Then they measured their yell volumes.
What are the IV’s and the DV’s in this experiement?
IV’s: clothing type
Condition 1: white t shirt
Condition 2: team t shirt
condition 3: head to toe gear
DV: yell volume
Condition 1: low volume cheering
Condition 2: medium volume cheering
Condition 3: high volume cheering
what are DV’s
variables whose values are impacted by the IV because they will depend on the IV if they are related
complex designs will have..
multiple IV”s with multiple levels and measure multiple DV’s
making the Sports enthusiasm study more complex
add 3 IV’s
- type of Sport (skiing or curling ) 2 levels
- clothes worn (non, shirt, full) 3 levels
- use of acohol (no, yes) 2 levels
DV’s:
- cheer volume
- time spent standing
how do you calculate how many conditions are in a study?
levels of V1 x levels of V2 x levels of V3 = number of conditions
how many IV’s are there typically in basic studies?
2 with only two levels
( 2 level experimental design)
when are basic studies most commonly used?
in clinical trials
- the control group receives no treatment
-the experimental group receives treatment
what is another word for a basic study
2 level experiemental design
what are confounding variables?
variables that we do not want to accidentally effect he DV
(ideally we want the IV to be the only thing effecting the DV)
what type of graph would you use for a basic study?
bar graph
what are some examples of confounding variables in a study on headache medicine effectiveness
- water intake
- amount of sleep
- weather
how can we control confounds?
- selection
- randomized assingment
- statistics
what is selection?
when you make sure all of the people in your study group are very similar
- this method has to have a reason for the selection
- ex. ) only using people with the same age, diets, etc.
what is randomized assignment?
when you make sure each study group has a little bit of every type of person in order to reduce the chances of systematic differences between groups
ex.) some young some old, some vegan some not
how do we use stats to control confounds?
- we ask questions about all counfounds we can think about and computer programs will account for them later once the results come out
having control allows for…
having causality
what is a downfall to controlling variables
the more you control your variables, the less realistic your study is
why? you’ve controlled out uniqueness and you are only studying one specific type of person
(makes results not generalizable)
what is study validity?
asking if we can trust the results that we are getting
what are treats to validity?
things that can potentially make our results less trustworthy
what is the research tradeoff?
figuring out how much of an experiment you can control
- we need to control for variables to claim causality, but then also controlling the variables makes research inapplicable
what is external validity
the extent to which the results are applicable to the real world
ie) does rat research apply to people research
what is internal validity
are you measuring what you think you are
- there is no 3rd variable
- the change in the DV is only because of the IV
what are some reasons data could be inaccurate
1.) mortality
2.) statisitcal regression
3.) history
4.) maturation
5.) testing
6.) instrumentation measurement tool error
what is mortality?
when participants drop out of one condition more than the other
ex.) in the diet group, only 7 out of 100 stayed, but in the no diet group, all participants stayed
what is statistical regression
when your data becomes biased off of an extreme score
what is history?
something occurs between the first observation and the 3rd
ex.) you are measuring mood and a recent death has occurred in a participants family
what is testing error?
when practicing effects test results
