Exam 1. Study Guide. Pt.1 Flashcards
What are the steps to the Scientific Method
- Observation
- Hypothesis
- Experiment
- Conclusion
What is the Anatomic Position?
The point of reference where:
- head is upright
- feet are parallel and flat on the floor
- head is level and eyes are looking forward
- arms are on either side with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
Why is Anatomical position important?
Provides a clear and consistent understanding of anatomy/locations in the body
What are the different levels of organizations?
- molecules and atoms
- organelles
- cells
- tissues
- organ and organ systems
- organisms
- populations
- communities
- ecosystems
- biosphere
What level of organizations do Histologists study?
Microscopic structures that are too small to be seen with an unaided eye
ex. tissues
What level of organizations do cytologists study?
Structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
ex. cells
What is Proximal and Distal
Proximal: Closest to point of attachment to trunk. ex. thigh
Distal: Farthest from point of attachment to trunk. ex. fingertips
What is Anterior and Posterior?
Anterior: In front of the body.
ex. thigh
Posterior: In the back of the body
ex. buttocks
What is Superior and Inferior
Superior: Closer to the head
ex. the chest is superior to the pelvis
Inferior: Closer to the feet
ex. the stomach is inferior to the heart
What is Medial and Lateral?
Medial: Toward the midline of the body
ex. the lungs are medial to the shoulders
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body
ex. the arms are lateral to the heart
The body can be divided into 2 major regions, what are they?
Axial: head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular: upper and lower limbs
What are the 2 body cavities
- Posterior cavities
- Ventral cavities
What are the 2 Posterior Cavities?
- Cranial: formed by skull bones
*contains brain - Vertebral: formed by vertebral column bones
*contains spinal cord
What are the 2 Ventral Cavities?
- Thoracic: the superior cavity
*contains lungs, heart, thymus - Abdominopelvic: the inferior cavity
*physically separated by the diaphragm
Where in the Thoracic cavity is the heart located?
Mediastinum
What are the 2 abdominopelvic cavities?
- Abdominal cavity (superior)
- Pelvic cavity (inferior)
What are the 9 regions of the abdominopelvic cavity?
- Right hypochondriac
- Right lumbar
- right iliac
-epigastric
- umbilical
- hypogastric
- Left hypochondriac
- left lumbar
- left iliac
How many quadrants can the abdominopelvic cavity be divided into?
4 quadrants: RUQ, RLQ, LUQ, LLQ
What is in the RUQ?
- right lobe of liver
- gallbladder
- right kidney
- portion of stomach
- small & large intestine
What is in the RLQ?
- cecum
- appendix
- portions of small intestine
- reproductive organs (right ovary, right spermatic cord)
What is in the LUQ?
- left lobe of liver
- stomach
- pancreas
- left kidney
- spleen
- portions of left large intestine
What is in the LLQ?
- most of small intestine
- portions of the large intestine
- left ureter
- reproductive organs (left ovary, left spermatic cord
What are the 4 main types of Tissues?
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
- Epitheil
Function of Connective Tissue
- protects, supports, and interconnects body parts to organs.
- Can be
solid (bones)
liquid (blood)
intermediate (cartilage)
Function of Nervous Tissue
- conducts impulses for internal communication
ex. brain, spinal cord, nerves
Function of Muscle Tissue
produces movement
ex. skeletal, smooth, cardiac
Function of Epithelial Tissue
- Physical protection: from external components & abrasians
- Selective Permability: regulates movement of certain molecules
- Secretions: some epithelial cells called glandular cells produce secretions such as sweat ot oil
- Sensations: posses receptors that can detect light, taste, sound, smell, and hearing
What is the basic structure of epithelial tissue?
Top: Epithelium
Middle: Basement membrane
Bottom: Connective Tissue
What is it called when the epithelium has 1 layer of cells?
Simple
What is it called when the epithelium has 2 or more layers of cells?
Stratified
What are the 3 types of epithelial cells?
- squamous: flat cells
- cuboidal: cube cells
- columnar: cells that are taller than they are wide
What is pseudostratified?
single layer, nuclei gives the appearance of multiple layers, stratified epithelium but they are NOT
What is Transitional Epithelium?
transitions from squamus to cuboidal to stretch
ex. found in bladder
How do epithelial cells connect?
intercellular junctions
What are the 5 types of intercellular junction?
- Tight junction
- Adhere junction
- Desmosome junction
- Gap junction
- Hemidesmosome junction
What is stratified squamous and sratified squamous keratonized?
stratified squamos: multiple layers of flattened cells
Stratified squamous keratonized:multiple layers of flattened cells with keratin on top
How many organ systems are there in the human body? Name them.
- Integumentary
- Muscular
- Skeletal
- Nervous
- Endocrine
- Cardiovascular
- Lymphatic
- Respiratory
- Digestive
- Urinary
- Reproductive (male & female)
What is the Integumentary System?
- Consists of skin, associated glands, and hair
- Provides protection, regulated body temp, synthesizes vit D, prevents water loss
What is the Skeletal System?
- provides support and protection
- creates blood cells
- stores calcium
- allows for body movement
What is the Muscular system?
- produces body movement
- generates heat when muscles contract
What is the Nervous System?
- regulatory system that controls body movement
- nerve cells/ nerons
- glial cells/neuroglia (supporting cells)
- nerons have cell body, nucleus, bendrites, axon, axon hillock, synaptic terminal.
What is the Endocrine system?
Consists of glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones, some of which regulate
What is the Cardiovascular system?
Consists of a pump (heart) that moves blood through (blood vessels) to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste products
What is the Lymphatic system?
Transports and filters lymph (interstitial fluid)
- initiates an immune response when necessary
What is the Respiratory system?
Responsible for exchange of gases (co2 & o) between blood and the air in lungs
What is the Digestive system?
Mechanically and chemically digests food materials
- absorbs nutrients
- expels waste products
What is the Urinary system?
Filters the blood and removes waste products from the blood
- waste is concentrated into urine, and body expels it
Male Reproductive system
- produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (testosterone)
- transfers sperm to the female
What is the Female Reproductive system?
- produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones (estrogen & progesterone)
- receives sperm from male
- site of fertilization of oocyte
- site of growth and dev. of embryo and fetus
What is polymerization?
- dehydration synthesis
- small molecule subunits create macromolecules
What are the 4 different Macromolecules?
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates: What is their function, identify monomers, linkage to bond monomer, and give example.
Primary source of energy
Monomers: monosaccharides & simple sugars
Linkage: Glycosidic bond
ex. Starch, glycogen, suckage
What is the difference between dehydration and hydrolysis. What is the relationship with monomers and macromolecules?
Hydrolysis: breaks down macromolecules
Dehydration: makes small molecule structures into macromolecules
Lipids: What is their function, identify monomers, linkage to bond monomer, and give example.
A source of energy, insulation, cushion
Monomers: fatty acids & glycerol
Linkage: estee bond
ex. oil, fat, wax, steroids, phosolipids (cell & plasma membrane)
Proteins: What is their function, identify monomers, linkage to bond monomer, and give example.
Have 3 different functions
1. Transport protein: enables transport in cells
2. Structural protein: gives structure 2 cells
3. Enzymes: breaks down macromolecules and catalyze reactions
Monomers: (20) amino acids
Linkage: Peptide bond
What are the 3 Amino Acid groups
- Amino group
- carboxylic group
- RGroup (makes 20 diff amino acids bc of 20 diff R groups)
Nucleic acids: What is their function, identify monomers, linkage to bond monomer, and give example.
Store & Transmit genetic info
Monomers: nucleotides
Linkage: phosphodiester
ex. DNA & RNA
What are the 3 basic parts of human cells?
- Plasma cell membrane
- cytoplasm: gel like fluid
- Nucleus: holds DNA (stores and transmits genetic info)
Why is the plasma membrane important?
- Serves as a selective physical and chemical barrier deciding on what it wants
- extremely thin outer border of cell
- regulates passage of gases, nutrients, and waste
What is the cell membrane made of?
-Made up mainly of lipids
*each phospholipid has a polar
- membrane proteins (gives membrane functions)
What are the 3 times of Membrane lipids?
- phospholipids: main lipids in bilayer
- cholestrol: strengthens membranes against extreme temps
- glycolipids: lipids & carbs
What kind of proteins are in the cell membrane?
integral & peripheral
How do materials transport across the plasm membrane
There are 2 general types of membrane transport.
1. Passive: Does NOT require energy. Materials move from high conc.-> low conc.
ex. going down the stairs
2. Active: Does REQUIRE energy from the cell. Materials are moved from low conc. -> high conc.
ex. going up the stairs
What are some characteristics of preferred molecules that can transport through cell the membrane? (easily)
- small
- non polar
- hydrophobic
(simple diffusion)
What are the 4 types of diffusion for Passive Transport?
- simple diffusions: small, non-polar, hydrophobic
- osmosis: transports water molecules ONLY uses aquaporin channels
- facilitated diffusion: for large or polar (charged) molecules. Requieres transport protein/protein channel
- bulk filtration: diffusion of both liquids (solvents) and dissolved molecules (solute)
What does Active Transport sometimes require?
- a transport protein
ex. ion pump
NA+ &K+
What is ATP
- energy (cells use ATP)
- “currency of life”
Describe the 3 parts of cell life
- interphase (resting & prep)
- mitotic phase (divides)
- Death
What are the Interphase stages?
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
What occurs in G1 Phase?
Cells grow, replicate organelle, produce proteins for replication and centrioles just PRIOR to cell division
What occurs in S Phase?
SYNTHESIS where DNA replicate in prep for cell division
What occurs in G2 phase?
Centriole replications complete
What is the Mitotic phase?
- When 2 daughter cells are produced that are genetically identical to the mother cell
What are the 2 Mitotic Phases?
- Mitosis: duplication of DNA, division of nucleus (PMAT): prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
- Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm & mother cell
Prophase
when duplicate, identical sister chromotids are conjoined at centrome
- spindal fibers begin to grow from each centriole
- dissolution of nuclear envelope
Metaphase
Middle
- chromosomes line up along equatorial plate
- spindel fibers attach to centromere of sister chromotids &form an oval structure called the mitotic spindle
Anaphase
apart
Telephase
a pinched part (a cleavage appears), completes physical division of daughter cells
Why do cells die?
- harmful agents
- apoptosis: programmed cell death
What are organelles?
mini organ cells
What is the function of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
- Membrane enclosed network of tubules that produces steroid hormones.
- make lips (cholesterol and phospholipids) and calcium
- transports steroid hormones
- detoxification process
What is the function of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?
- has membrane bound ribosomes
- production folding, quality control and despatch of some proteins
- creates lipids, cholesterol, & phospholipids
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
Receive proteins and lipids from the RER for modifications, sorting, packaging.
What is the function of Lysosome?
They are organelles in animal cells filled with digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
- essential for cellular waste
What is the function of centrosomes and centrioles?
centrosomes: Maintains the chromosome number during cell division
centrioles: Helps with cell division in animal cells & in formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell division
What is the function of Peroxisomes?
Tiny organelles that help cells break down fats, alcohol, harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide into safer molecules such as water and oxygen.
What is the function of Mitochondria?
- powerhouse of the cell, produces the energy (ATP) necessary for the cell’s survival and function.
- has own set of DNA that doesn’t leave nucleus
- They also involve in signaling between cells and cell death, known as apoptosis.
What is the function of Ribosomes?
synthesizing proteins by translating the genetic code transcribed in mRNA into an amino acid sequence
What is the function of Cytoskeleton?
- located within the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells and is made up of 4 protein structures that have different functions.
- provide cell movement, a structure
What is the function of Cilia and Flagella?
Flagella: microscopic hair-like structures that aid in the locomotion of the cell. This is because they have a whip-like appearance that helps propel a cell through the liquid using a propeller-like motion.
Cilia: an organelle that has hair like projections found along the respiratory tract. These hair like projections help move debris out of the respiratory tract.
What is the function of Microvilli?
- are finger-like membrane protrusions, supported by the actin cytoskeleton, and found on almost all cell types.
- ncrease the surface area of the cell’s apical surface, resulting in more effective absorption or secretion of substances.
What is the function of the Nucleus?
control center of cells. cover the nucleus genetic material. Keeps the nuclear material enclosed from the cytoplasm.
