Exam 1 Mehta SG Part 1 Flashcards
Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology
1
Q
What is Chronic inflammation?
A
Chronic Inflammation
*It is a pathological condition characterized by continued active inflammation response and tissue destruction
*The chronic inflammatory process induces oxidative stress and reduces cellular antioxidant capacity
oOverproduced free radicals react
with cell membrane fatty acids and
proteins impairing their function
permanently
oIn addition, free radicals can lead
to mutation and DNA damage
2
Q
Risk factors of chronic inflammation, to name a few, include
A
Hypoxia (COPD?), obesity, hyperglycemia, and smoking
3
Q
There is now general consensus, that ________________ can be a predisposing factor for some cancers and accelerated aging
A
Chronic Inflmastaion
There is now general consensus, that chronic inflammation can be a predisposing factor for some cancers and accelerated aging
4
Q
Chronic inflammation It is also believed to play a serious role in a wide variety of age-related diseases including:
A
Diabetes, cardiovascular, and autoimmune diseases
5
Q
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation
A
Redness
- Vasodilation
- increased blood flow
Swelling
-Edema, caused by accusation of fluid outside of blood vessels
Heat
-Increased blood flow to the area
Pain
- Distortion of tissues caused by edema
-Chemical mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins
Loss of function
- Because of pain or severe swelling that prevent movement
6
Q
What is the importance of pharmacology in the audiology profession?
A
7
Q
Name the Cardinal Signs of inflammation
A
Redness
Swelling
Heat
Pain
Loss of function
8
Q
What are enzymes
Name example & function
A
- Enzymes are catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells
oAlmost all enzymes are proteins
-Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules
Inhibitors are molecules that
decrease enzyme activity
oMany drugs and poisons are
enzyme inhibitors
Activators are molecules that
increase enzyme activity
- Collagenase, lactase, acetylcholinesterase
9
Q
Name an Enzyme example
A
Collagenase, lactase, acetylcholinesterase
(Enzymes end in …ase, of the name of compounds that they act on)
10
Q
Enzymes end in ______ of the name of compounds that they act on
For examples: (name 3)
A
ase
Enzymes end in …ase, of the name of compounds that they act on
For examples: Collagenase, lactase, acetylcholinesterase
11
Q
What are enzymes
A
- Enzymes are catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells
oAlmost all enzymes are proteins
-Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules
Inhibitors are molecules that
decrease enzyme activity
oMany drugs and poisons are
enzyme inhibitors
Activators are molecules that
increase enzyme activity
12
Q
What are inhibitors?
A
-Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules
o Inhibitors are molecules that
decrease enzyme activity
*Many drugs and poisons are
enzyme inhibitors
13
Q
What are activators?
A
-Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules
oActivators are molecules that
increase enzyme activity
14
Q
What is the function of enzymes
A
- Enzymes are catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells
oAlmost all enzymes are proteins
-Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules
Inhibitors are molecules that
decrease enzyme activity
oMany drugs and poisons are
enzyme inhibitors
Activators are molecules that
increase enzyme activity
15
Q
What are Receptors?
A
- A receptor is a protein molecule
- located in cell surface or cytoplasm
- Allows for communication between Cell & world outside the cell
- ## Receptors allow ligands to attach resulting in a change in the cell function
16
Q
What are ligands?
A
- ligands are extracellular molecules
- Ligands are anything that are not within the cells its self.
(it can be within the body or not part of the body.)
ex: Hormones, neurotransmitters, toxins, or drugs
17
Q
What are proteins
Name example & function
A
-Proteins are polypeptides sequences
formed from various amino acids
- Your genes are what dictate how each protein will develop/function
Example: Keratin, Collagen, Albumin, Actin
18
Q
What are proteins
A
-Proteins are polypeptides sequences
formed from various amino acids
19
Q
Name an example of Proteins
A
Example: Keratin, Collagen, Albumin, Actin
20
Q
What is the function of proteins
A
The function of the protein is determined by your genetic compositions.
- Your genes are what dictate how each protein will develop.
Ex: number of amino acids, shapes of amino acids and type of amino acids are all determined by your DNA/genetic compositions that dictate how each protein will develop
21
Q
What are neurotransmitters
Name example & function
A
- A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body
-Neurotransmitters classified by function
*Excitatory neurotransmitters
o These increase the likelihood
that neurons will fire an action
potential
* Inhibitory neurotransmitters
o They decrease the likelihood
that neurons will fire an action
potential
- Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present
- Ex:
excitatory: epinephrine and norepinephrine
inhibitory: Serotonin and GABA
22
Q
What are neurotransmitters
A
- A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body
Classified by function
*Excitatory neurotransmitters
*Inhibitory neurotransmitters
23
Q
__________ cause reactions that are slower than those associated with neurotransmitters
A
Hormones
o Hormones cause reactions that are slower than those associated with neurotransmitters
- Synthetic compounds also can act
like hormones in the body
24
Q
Diseases such as _________ and _________ are associated with deficits in certain neurotransmitters, for example
Dopamine deficiency ___________
Acetylcholine deficiency __________
A
Diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s are associated with deficits in certain neurotransmitters, for example
Dopamine deficiency in Parkinson’s dx
Acetylcholine deficiency in Alzheimer’s dx
25
Dopamine deficiency =
Dopamine deficiency in Parkinson’s dx
26
Acetylcholine deficiency =
Acetylcholine deficiency in Alzheimer’s dx
27
What is reuptake?
In a process known as reuptake, the neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor site and is reabsorbed by the neuron
28
Name an example of neurotransmitters
*Excitatory neurotransmitters
- epinephrine and norepinephrine
*Inhibitory neurotransmitters
-serotonin and GABA
*Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present
29
What is the function of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters classified by function
Excitatory neurotransmitters
oThese neurotransmitters have
excitatory effects on the neuron
-These increase the likelihood
that neurons will fire an action
potential
o Major excitatory neurotransmitters
include epinephrine and
norepinephrine
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
o These neurotransmitters have
inhibitory effects on the neuron
-They decrease the likelihood
that neurons will fire an action
potential
o Major inhibitory neurotransmitters
include serotonin and GABA
* Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present
30
Function of Neurotransmitter based on type.
*Acetylcholine - voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)
*Norepinephrine - wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway
*Dopamine - voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
*Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) – memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)
*Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
*Glycine – spinal reflexes and motor behavior
*Glutamate – excitatory stimulation
31
What are hormones
Name example & function
- A hormone is a chemical substance, usually a peptide or steroid, produced and released by one set of cells and conveyed by the bloodstream to another to effect physiological activity, such as growth or metabolism
- Hormones are chemical messengers that transports a signal from one cell to another.
-sending signals into the bloodstream
and tissues.
- Thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone
32
Thyroid, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone are examples of what?
Hormone Examples
33
What are hormones
A hormone is a chemical substance, usually a peptide or steroid, produced and released by one set of cells and conveyed by the bloodstream to another to effect physiological activity, such as growth or metabolism
34
Name a hormone example
Examples of hormones include
o Thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone
35
What is the function of hormones
- Hormones are powerful and only a small amount of a hormone is required to alter cell metabolism
** Hormones are chemical messengers that transports a signal from one cell to another.
- effect physiological activity, such as growth or metabolism
- All multicellular organisms produce hormones
36
What are neuromodulators
Name example & function
- A neuromodulator is a substance, other than a neurotransmitter, released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities
-Neuromodulators produce a more diffuse response, and are released throughout the central nervous system
- They play a role in sensory transmission, especially pain
- Substance P modulated pain
- Dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction
37
What are neuromodulators
- A neuromodulator is a substance, other than a neurotransmitter, released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities
38
Name a neuromodulator example
Substance P modulated pain
Dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction
39
What is the function of neuromodulators
- Neuromodulator are released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities
-Neuromodulators produce a more
diffuse response, and are released
throughout the central nervous
system
- They play a role in sensory transmission, especially pain
40
What are controlled substances
Name example & function
- Controlled substances are drugs that have some potential for abuse or dependence
o FDA also regulates controlled
substances
- Opioids are powerful pain relievers
- EX: Opioids (narcotics), Stimulants, and sedatives
o Opioids include Morphine,
hydrocodone, and codeine
41
What are controlled substances
- Controlled substances are drugs that have some potential for abuse or dependence
o FDA also regulates controlled
substances
42
Name an example of controlled substance
- EX: Opioids (narcotics), Stimulants, and sedatives
o Opioids include Morphine,
hydrocodone, and codeine
43
What is the function of controlled substances
- Opioids are powerful pain relievers
(not 100% this is one function I could find)
44
What is Doctrine of Signatures
Doctrine Signatures is the idea that plants, herbs, nuts etc have “signatures” that can be “read” to cure diseases based on their resemblance to the human body.
Ex: wallnuts look like brain/head and is believed to cure ailments of head.
45
Name examples of Doctrine of Signatures
- Carrot = eye
- tomato = heart
- Walnut = brain/head
- Bead = Kidney
Walnuts & leaves of Saint Johns Wort
- Walnuts were good to cure ailments of the head because they had a perfect signature for the head!
- The holes in the leaves of Saint Johns Wort resemble pores of the skin and, therefore, can treat disease and wounds of the skin
46
What is the margin of safety?
47
What is ANDA?
48
What is NDA?
49
What is a Patent?
50
Biochemistry is the study …
Biochemistry is the study of the molecular basis of life
51
Cell signaling
How Cells talk to each other
- the transfer of information from one
cell to another
52
Define Ion
An Ion is an electrically charged atom or molecule formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons
- can be Cation, Anion or neural ion
- Ions have rings, each ring has a maximum number of electrons it can hold
- first (inner) ring - 2 electrons
- 2nd ring = 8 electrons
- 3rd ring= 18 electrons
- 4th ring = 32 electrons
53
What are electrons
NEGATIVELY CHARGED
negatively charged subatomic particle that can be either bound to an atom or free (not bound)
54
What are protons
POSITIVELY CHARGED
Positively charged subatomic particle that can be either bound to an atom or free (not bound)
55
List Maximum number of electrons rings 1,2,3 & 4 can hold
The first (inner) ring can only hold 2 electrons
The second level can hold 8
The third can hold 18
The fourth holds 32, …
56
If an Ion has a positive charge
Cation = Positive charged ion
57
If an Ion has a negative charge
Anion= Negative Charged ion- CI-
A-Angry= Negative
58
What is a Cation?
Positive Charged Ion- Na+
- atomic shell has lost electrons
- More protons than electrons = ion a positive charge
59
What is an Anion?
Negative Charged Ion - CI-
- electrons are added to shell
- More electrons than protons = ion negatively charged
60
Name common ions in the body and cochlea
Common ions in the body & cochlea includes Na+, K+ and Cl-
61
Molecule
Molecule is the smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance
It is made up of TWO or MORE atoms linked by a chemical bond.
62
T/F the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the atomic number?
True
63
T/F the number of electrons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the atomic number?
False
Protons = the atomic number
64
Radicals
Radicals
65
T/F Atoms are most stable/least reactive when their outermost shell is empty?
FALSE
Atoms are most stable/least reactive when their outermost shell is FULL?
66
What is an uncharged atom
an uncharged atom may have balanced charges
- is an equal number of electrons and protons
67
What is an uncharged atom with a not full outer will be_______ & known as _____
An uncharged atom with a not full outer shell will be CHEMICALLY UNSTABLE & called a RADICAL
68
Radicals
Uncharged atom, outer shell not full and chemically unstable
69
Radicals also known as
Free radical
Radical & Free Radical = same
70
Are free radicals good or bad?
Too many free radicals damage other molecules over time.
71
Compound
1) A compound is the combination of 2 or more elements with a chemical union.
2) reproducible, every time you combine the same elements you get the same product
3) Can be Broken down into simpler forms by chemical means
72
Mixture
- 2 or more different element and or compounds (physically intermingled)
- Can be separated into in components by physical means
- It often retains many of the properties of its components
Ex: Salt water;
Both are compounds and can take on each others properties but can be separated also
- You can taste the water, you can taste the salt but you can also take the combination of the two
73
Non- Uniform Mixture
- 2 or more substances without fixed proportions and WITHOUT chemical bonding
- Each Substance keeps its ORIGINAL PROPERTIES
ex: Oil & Water
74
Compound
VS
Mixture
VS
Non- uniform Mixture
Compound;
- COMBINATION of 2 or more elements
Mixture;
- 2 or more elements and or compounds
- Physically inert mingled but can be separated into components
Non-Uniform Mixture
- 2 or More substances WITHOUT chemical bonding and without fixed proportions
- Each substance keeps its original properties
75
What is a chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances containing two or more atoms
The Two Main Types are
Covalent bonds
Non-covalent bonds
76
Name the types of bonds
There are different types of bonds
Covalent bonds
Non-covalent bonds
-Electrostatic bonds (ionic)
-Hydrogen bonds
-Hydrophobic attractions
-van der Waals bonds
77
Covalent Bonds
- It results from the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules
- It is the bonding between non-metals
- Held together by there metal affinity for their shared electrons
- Strongest and most stable chemical bond
- Not typically involved in drug receptor interactions
78
Bonding between nonmetals
Covalent Bonds
79
What bonds hold together proteins, Carbohydrates and Lipids
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are the force that hold together proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
80
The strongest & most stable type of chemical bond
Covalent Bonds
81
Covalent Bond Main Points
- results from the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules
- It is the bonding between non-metals
- Strongest and most stable chemical bond
82
Hydrogen Bond
Type of non-covalent bond
- force between a positive hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur
-
83
A _______________ alone is weaker than covalent and ionic bonds
A hydrogen bond alone is weaker than covalent and ionic bonds
- When atoms are close together, and several bonds are formed it increases the strength of the bond
84
T/F Any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen or a nitrogen is capable of hydrogen bonding
TRUE
85
Any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an ________ or a __________is capable of _____________
Any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an OXYGEN or a NITROGEN is capable of HYDROGEN BONDING
86
What Bond
Hold the two strands of the DNA double helix together
Hydrogen Bond
87
What bond
Hold polypeptides together
Hydrogen Bond
88
What Bond
Help enzymes bind to their substrate
Hydrogen Bond
89
What Bond
Help antibodies bind to their antigen
Hydrogen Bond
90
What Bond
Help transcription factors bind to each other
Hydrogen Bond
91
What Bond
Help transcription factors bind to DNA
Hydrogen Bond
92
Bonding Between metal & nonmetal
Ionic Bonds
93
_______ are electrostatic bonds between two ions of opposite charges.
IONIC BONDS are electrostatic bonds between two ions of opposite charges.
- It is the transformer of one or more electrons from a metal onto a non metal
- Atoms - charge are attracted to + charge atoms
94
_________ are stronger than hydrogen but weaker than covalent bonds
Ionic Bonds
95
A ________ bond is the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site.
IONIC Bonds
A ionic bond is the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site.
96
Ionic Bond
- Bonding between metal & nonmetals
- Electrostatic bonds between two ions of opposite charge (+ & -)
- Ionic bond is the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site.
- Strong than hydrogen but weaker than covalent bonds
97
What bond
Molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range
Van der Waals bonds
98
What Bond
is the most common bond between atoms
Van der Waals bonds
99
What bond is the weakest
Van der Waals bonds
100
What Bond
These forces operate only when molecules pass very close to each other
Van der Waals bonds
101
What bond
provide a weak force for some drugs and their receptors
Van der Waals bonds
102
Van der Waals bonds
- Molecule attract at moderate distances & repel each at close range
-They interact w/ opposite charges
- The bigger the atom or molecule. The bigger the Van der Waals'
103
What is Redox?
Oxidation & Reduction = Redox
- There are no oxidation reactions without a reduction reaction happening at the same time
104
What is Oxidation
Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons
105
What is reduction
Reduction refers to the gain of electrons
106
Oxidation & Reduction/ Redox
- a family of reactions that are concerned with the transfer of electrons
- Redox reactions are a matched set
- Oxidation & reduction need to
occur at the SAME TIME
- Each Reaction by itself is called a Half - reaction, there needs to be 2 1/2 reactions to forma whole
- When Metal oxidized- lose electron-positive charge = Cation
- Non-Metal - reduced - gains the electron lost by the metal- negative charge= Anion
107
___________refers to the loss of electrons, while __________ refers to the gain of electrons
Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons
108
True or False
Oxidation & reduction
Each reaction by itself is called a half-reaction, simply because there need to be two half-reactions to form a whole reaction
True
Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons
Each reaction by itself is called a half-reaction, simply because there need to be two half-reactions to form a whole reaction
109
All __________ atoms are characterized by their tendency to be oxidized, losing one or more electrons, forming a ____________ = ___________
The electrons lost by the ________ are not destroyed but gained by the _________, which is said to be reduced
As the ___________ gains the electrons lost by the metal, it forms a _______________, =_________
All METAL atoms are characterized by their tendency to be oxidized, losing one or more electrons, forming a POSITIVELY CHARGED ION = CATION
The electrons lost by the METAL are not destroyed but gained by the NON_METAL, which is said to be reduced
As the non-metal gains the electrons lost by the metal, it forms a NEGATIVELY charged ion = ANION
110
METALS
METALS = oxidized = losing electrons = postive charge = CATION
111
NON METALS
NON METALS = reduced = gain electrons = negative charge = ANION
112
What is an oxidation/reduction reaction
Redox
- Oxidation & reduction occurs at the same time
- METALS = oxidized = losing electrons = postive charge = CATION
NON METALS = reduced = gain electrons = negative charge = ANION
113
what is oxidative stress?
Oxidative stress= Too many/more ROS
Summarized- Oxidative stress is a disturbance/ imbalance between the production of ROS & the bodies antioxidant defenses
Oxidative stress is a disturbance (imbalance) between the production of reactive oxygen species – ROS (includes free radicals and peroxides) produced by most body reactions, and a biologic system's antioxidant defenses, which would allow it to easily repair the resulting damage
Disturbance in this redox environment results in excess ROS that can damage components of cells, including proteins, lipids, and DNA
114
Currently, oxidative stress and inflammation are two processes believed to go hand in hand (the two evil twins!), believed to result in:
Oxidative Stress
-Currently, oxidative stress and inflammation are two processes believed to go hand in hand (the two evil twins!), believed to result in:
o The aging process
o Neurodegeneration
o Diseases such as:
Diabetes
Some cancers
Atherosclerosis
Parkinson’s Disease
Alzheimer's Disease
115
Severe Oxidative stress
*Severe oxidative stress may cause cell death by necrosis
o Passive, accidental cell death with
subsequent inflammation
116
Moderate oxidation
*Moderate oxidation can trigger apoptosis
o Active, programmed cell death that
avoids eliciting inflammation
117
What is necrosis
Necrosis is when a cell fills up with fluid, bursts/ruptures and dies. but the fluid will affect and damage the surrounding cells
118
What is apoptosis
Cell suicide, program cell death. The cell shrinks, losses its organelles, losses cell membrane and it does not cause damage to surrounding cells.
119
Reactive oxygen Species (ROS)
*Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are not always harmful and can be beneficial, such as
o ROS is used by the immune system
to attack and kill pathogens
o ROS is used in cell signaling
*But overproduction of ROS must be prevented to prevent cell damage
oThere are natural antioxidants that
occur in the body as well as
antioxidants obtained from food and
vegetables to prevent overproduction
of ROS
120
What is Glutathione
Neutralizes ROS and is a natural antioxidant.
Glutathione is a naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins such as free radicals
Glutathione is an important protector within the auditory-vestibular system
Neutralizes ROS and is a natural antioxidant.
Glutathione can be produced by any cell in the body but the liver is the main production source
121
__________ is an important protector within the auditory-vestibular system
Glutathione is an important protector within the auditory-vestibular system
122
What is an natural antioxidant and neutralizes ROS
Glutathione
123
___________ can be produced by any cell in the body but the liver is the main production source
Glutathione can be produced by any cell in the body but the liver is the main production source
124
T/F
Inflammation is necessary response that allows the body to destroy invading organisms and repair itself (wound healing)
TRUE
Inflammation is necessary response that allows the body to destroy invading organisms and repair itself (wound healing)
In some disorders, the inflammatory process, which normally is self‐limiting, becomes continuous and chronic inflammatory diseases might subsequently develop
125
Function of
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter
*Acetylcholine
- voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)
126
Function of
Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitter
*Norepinephrine
- wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway
127
Function of
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter
*Dopamine
- voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
128
Function of
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter
*Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) – memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)
129
Function of
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Neurotransmitter
*Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
- inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
130
Function of
Glycine
Neurotransmitter
*Glycine
– spinal reflexes and motor behavior
131
Function of
Glutamate
Neurotransmitter
*Glutamate – excitatory stimulation
