Exam 1 Flashcards
Solvent drag
- when water moves it can drag things with it that it normally does not move
Ex: diarrhea or vomiting moves things out of body by water
Molar solution
- number of moles in a liter (moles/liter)
- 1000 milliliters in water
Salivary amylase
- breaks down complex sugars to simple sugars and allows them to interact with sweet taste buds
- digestion in the mouth
2 types of sweet taste buds
Zymogens
- participates in stomach digestive process
- enzyme produced in an inactive form in cells
- exported to a new location to be activated later
- produced by chief cells
Ex: pepsin
Rumination
- chewing cud, or regurgitated food material
Process of rumination
- regurgitates plant material
- rechews (further decreases particle size)
- resalivates
- reswallows the bolus
Ex: common strategy for prey animals, ruminants partake in this (herbivore mammals and toed or hooved animals)
Connective tissue
- one of the 4 types of tissue that participate in digestion
- connects things
- **cells do not touch each other (big diff btw all other tissue types)
- space between the cells are called the matrix
Ex:
- bone cells are separated by a hard matrix with calcium in it
- nose cartilage has a protein matrix, soft matrix more flexible
- blood cells (red/white bc) are separated by the plasma in the blood
Bolus
- soft round mass of chewed food of proper amount you would normally swallow
- never touches the cells
Hardware disease
- lots of Blood in the thoracic cavity, bleeds out
Possible Cause:
- heavy objects/things animal consume drop into the reticulum
- so if an animal eats a sharp piece of metal it can pierce the reticulum, diaphragm and the heart(aorta) - thus causing a bleed out
Salivation
- part of process of digestion in the mouth or oral cavity
- saliva is produced in salivary glands (ducted)
- saliva used for solubility, lubrication, alkaline buffering (ruminants)
Ex: saliva is rich in bicarbonate, which buffers the large quantity of acid produced in the rumen, critical for maintenance of rumen Ph
Lymphatic system
- designed to recover water and compounds and return them to the cardiovascular system
Elephantiasis
- blockage of the flow of lymphatic vessels leads to severe edema
- edema -> gross enlargement of an area of the body
- passes through lymph nodes that examine the lymph for problems if yes we need a response (swelling)
- very common in legs or arms
Stomach acid
- produced by proton pumps
-
Capillary cells
- special type of endothelial cells (with membrane), they are the epithelium of blood vessels
- very slick and smooths, line the blood vessels
- separates the blood plasma from the interstitial fluid
After a high protein meal what happens?
- you produce lots of H+ and pepsinogen to deal with the protein
- so you have a lot of bicarbonate that goes into the blood
- blood leaving the stomach is alkaline (ALKALINE TIDE) (ph>7.2)
Ex: cats are affected by this Bc calcium is most soluble in acid. So alkaline blood promotes kidney stones as calcium precipitates in the kidney.
Transcellular fluid
1) optic-> fluid in the eye
2) synovial-> fluid in the joints
3) digestive system-> saliva, gastric(stomach) juice, pancreatic(bile, urine) juice
4) bladder
5) cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) -> layer of fluid around spinal chord and brain
Canines
- grasp and rip prey, feed
- pointy teeth
Pharynx and the 7 openings into and out of it
- common passageway for air, food, liquid
- behind the mouth/oral cavity
- leads to esophagus or trachea
7 openings into and out of it
1) oral cavity
2) esophagus (leads to stomach)
3) larynx (open to primary bronchi goes to lungs) - epiglottis covers opening to the larynx
4) nasal passages (2)- from internal nares (lead to bronchi)
5) Eustachian tubes(2) lead to cavity of middle ear - permits the equalization of pressure on each side of ear drum (ear pop on plane)
(Look at sticky note in nb)
Scleral ossicles
- bone surrounding the white of eye in birds
Bloat
- occurs in the rumen
- instead of one large bubble, frothy mix of small bubbles
- the stomach presses against the diaphragm and makes it harder to breathe
- anti bloat compounds increase surface tension to form large bubbles
- deflate(release gasses) with a trocar (hollow tube)
Examples:
Colic in horses
Gastric Dilatation-Volvulus(GDV) in dogs
Displaced abomasum (common after partition in cattle)
Homodonts
- all teeth in the mouth are the same
Ex: shark Bc only meant for catching and ripping, have back up teeth in case one gets ripped out
- armadillos
Purpose of Teeth, dentition
- used for eating, grooming, defense
- can age an animal by its teeth
Mole
- molecular weight in grams of a substance
Duodenum
- aids in digestion in the small intestine
- relatively short, receives chyme from the stomach
- pancreatic juice from the pancreas
- bile from the liver
*ducted accessory glands
Digestive tract
Gastrointestinal tract (stomach) and accessory glands
Carnivore
- consume only meat/flesh
- meat is when it’s treated what humans eat, flesh is what tigers consume not treated meat
- monogastric digestive systems (simplest)
Ex: cat is a obligate carnivore Bc digestive tract is designed to process meat - large mouth bass
Insulin
- produced by beta cells
- promotes uptake of glucose form the blood especially In skeletal muscle and fat and into the liver
- decrease glucose production by the liver
- decreases blood glucose level
Oral hygiene
- tooth decay, need to be extracted
- infection in the teeth and gums can lead to infection all over the body
- produce less saliva at night which is why morning dries out, bacteria build up (morning breath)
Entero
- refers to the intestines
Prehension
- how you get food to your mouth
Ex: elephant trunk moves can grab food and bring to mouth
Organelles
- cells in humans and horses
- little organs
- nucleus, mitochondria, golgi
Diet
- complete and balanced
- all ingredients you ingest will satisfy you with all the nutrients that you need to make proteins etc
Ex: cats need amino acid taurine present in meat
Epithelial tissue
- covering of the soft tissues (skin)
- all the tubes of your body are covered with an epithelium (all tubes of blood vessels, heart, etc)
- barrier tissue
Stomach
- begins the chemical breakdown of food
- located in the abdominal cavity posterior to the diaphragm
- pH 1-2 very acidic used to think nothing grew in the stomach, Heliobacter can cause ulcers
Muscle tissue
- contracting and shortened tissues
- cardiac, smooth (gut and reproductive), skeletal (joints)
Sugar and amino acid absorption
- go through a portal blood system
- 2 capillary beds in series, not in parallel and not separated by the heart
- capillary beds are in different systems
- efficient at pickup and delivery of nutrients/ material without having to go all the way back to the heart can go straight to other system
- makes concentrated in the blood and can deliver concentrated to nearby system instead of going back to the heart where it will mix with blood from all over body and dilute then get delivered *
Ex: from cap bed in SI straight to cap bed in liver
Positive feedback loop
- more rare*
Ex: blood clotting, parturition (birthing, farrowing piglets, calving cows, foaling horses) - when reach a set point it keeps going above the set point
- once it starts it feeds on it to build up and do more maximizing and amplifying itself
Ex:
- blood clotting-> once clotting starts wants to clot until bleed stops
- parturition-> once a female starts contracting wants to expel fetus, so the contractions become stronger and more frequent, it escalates
Chyme
- bolus of food once it reaches the stomach becomes partially digested and watery
- gastric juice + feedstuff
- enters the small intestine once it is very liquid
Homeostatic feedback mechanisms
- the most common way the body regulates things
- homeostasis is all about balancing around a set point
Tongue
- muscular tongues in mammals, some birds like parrots have muscular tongues
- most birds have a bony tongue, that is connected to the hyoid bones which allow for movement/can push the tongue out by pushing the hyoid bone in and out
Ex: woodpecker has hyoid bones that attach all the way around the skull very long so can push tongue out VERY far
Hormones
- signaling molecules that affect at a distance within an individual
Gastric glands
1) neck- mucus producing cells at top, in sides have the parietal cells pumping the H+, or acid
2) base(chief cells)- Zymogens
- pepsinogen converted to pepsin
Dental formula
=I C P M of maxilla / I C P M of mandible
- half of the mouth (ex: left half of top jaw, and left half of bottom jaw)
Ex: if you are given a dental formula do the math and figure out how many teeth the animal has… Add amount of teeth together and multiply by 2 !
Omnivores
- eat both plant and meat
- monogastric
Ex: pigs, dogs
Exocrine gland
- term for ducted glands
- gland sits outside and there is a duct or tube that carries the product somewhere else
Ex: salivary glands, pancreas
Abomasum
- true stomach of a ruminant
- produces hydrogen, pepsinogen
- in a calf this is the largest compartment of the stomach, whereas an adult cow it’s the rumen
If you see a dental formula that has a 00 at top where incisors and canines would be you know ?
- it’s a ruminant
- they have a dental pad instead
Deglutition
- swallowing
1) voluntary- move food to the back of the mouth
2) involuntary (reflexive) - soft palate compresses and pushes bolus of food into the esophagus then esophagus moves food through neck and thoracic cavity
Ex: pigeons and dogs can swallow Bc have soft palate other avian species can not they have to use gravity
Autocrine secretion
- when a cell affects itself, produces a product releases it and takes it back up
Palantine/lingual tonsils
- lymph nodes at back of tonsils involved in protecting us (immune system)
- any time there is an opening we need protection
Mastication
- chewing of the food
Ex: birds do not chew
Esophagus parts
1) Serosa- a strong membrane on the outside of the esophagus
- from esophagus to the anus
2) outer longitudinal smooth muscle and inner circular smooth muscle
3) submucosa -> glands
4) mucosa -> moist epithelium
Circulatory system
- lymphatic system + cardiovascular system
Exocytosis
- chylomicron inside the cell with a membrane around it from the Golgi
- hugs the cell wall and leaves
Lipid bilayer
- hydrophilic (polar water loving) heads and hydrophobic (fatty acids water hating)
- water is on the outside of the cell (interstitial fluid) and water is in the inside of the cell (Intracellular fluid)
- the cell membrane keeps them separated
Pulp of the tooth
- where you have the nervous system, blood vessels
Ex: if cavity reaches pulp will hurt a lot because reaches nerves
Active Transport types
- uses energy to move across a membrane especially AGAINST a concentration gradient (low to high)
1) endocytosis (vs exocytosis)
2) carrier mediated transport
Pig teeth
- needle teeth, will clip incisors Bc very sharp and hurts female sow when feeding
Facilitated Diffusiom
- in the cell membrane there are pores and channels (not static it is moving)
- as membrane shifts pores open and close
- pores facilitate the movement of something so big that can’t move across the membrane on its own so they need a special route
Solvent
- the fluid in the body
- primary fluid in body is water
Endocytosis
- cell wanting to absorb bacteria
1) Pinocytosis
- small
2) Phagocytosis
- large
Osmosis
- water is soluble to all cell membranes, how it moves
- special case of diffusion
- movement of a solvent (water) from a lower solute concentration to a higher solute concentration through a selectively permeable membrane
- moves by osmotic pressure
Taste buds
- on the tongue(lingual) papillae (receptors, raised bumps on tongue, or the sense of taste)
- receptors that sense our external environment
Humans have 5 recognized tastes/receptors
1) salt
2) sweet
3) bitter
4) sour
5) umami (MSG) Asian flavor
Ex: cats have only one of the 2 sugar receptors which is why they don’t beg for treats like dogs
- birds have very few receptors
- protect us from eating poisons or toxins Bc bitter
- put white bread dry on your tongue and then it will start to taste sweet Bc saliva has amylase that breaks down complex sugars to simple sugars which now go through the pore and stimulate the sweet tooth
Tooth Crown
- portion of the tooth above the gum line (part you can see)
Three major fluid compartments in the body
- separated by membranes
1) Plasma
2) interstitial
3) Intracellular - makes up 50% of body fluids (majority)
Diffusion
- molecules(ions) move along a concentration gradient from high to low
- occurs in solvents, in gases (air) and in solids
Direct correlation
- temperature (temp inc diffusion inc),
- concentration difference inc rate,
- x-sectional area (larger the area, faster rate of diffusion Bc more space to go)
Indirect correlation (as these go up diff goes down) - distance (greater distance slower rate) - molecular weight (bigger molecules move slower)
What happens when milk gets into the rumen
Milk-> rumen-> acted on by microbes -> gas
(BLOAT)
- pail fed ruminants are more likely to get this Bc more likely to go into rumen
Carrier Mediated Transport
- form of active transport
- requires energy (ATP) and carrier
- ATP= Adenosine Triphosphate
- if potassium attaches to a carrier it will flip and release K+ inside
- then will take a sodium Na+ and flip back and release the sodium
- the carrier moves across the cell faster and **going against a concentration gradient!
(Even if a lot of potassium inside the cell can FORCE more in, diffusion wouldn’t allow that) - amino acids and glucose also move across cell membranes through this method
Colic in horses
- they are hind gut fermenters has a lot of microbes that breakdown plant material in the cecum of the large intestine
- torsion or twisting of the GI tract
Impaction colic - blockage of material that was eaten
Enamel
- toughest material in the body
- covers the dentin above the gum line
- protects dentin and pulp
Jejunum
- absorption of carbohydrates and proteins
Cell or plasma membrane
- separates interstitial fluid from Intracellular fluid
- membrane is a lipid bilayer (dynamic fluid)
Rodent teeth
- gnawing animals
- have constantly growing teeth (teeth are getting longer through growth)
- have to wear their teeth down by chewing on something hard
- if they don’t get worn down teeth can grow into the upper or lower jaw and won’t be able to eat
Ex: beavers, rabbits
Osmolarity (OsM)
- number of particles / ions that dissociate(come apart) from a mole
Ex:
- glucose molecule doesn’t dissociate so forms 1 osmole
- NaCl in solution forms Na+ Cl- so forms 2 osmoles
Ruminant stomachs
- much larger
- holds more food because has 4 chambers
The major components of osmosis
- osmosis is the primary driving force for water in the body
1) water
2) a selectively permeable membrane
3) a concentration difference on both sides of the membrane
Stomach enzymes
1) zymogen- pepsinogen
- inactive enzyme produced in the cells
2) Activate Enzyme - pepsin
- a protease (involved in the breakdown of proteins)
- activated in the lumen
3) rennin - coagulates milk protein ONLY IN RUMINANTS
- casein is milk protein, young ruminant animals produce rennin to coagulate casein (forms jello like clump)
- casein under influence of rennin complexed with calcium and forms calcium paracaseinate (blob of milk protein in calf, fawns stomach)
- pepsin is what breaks down the calcium paracaseinate
IN monogastrics - acid causes casein to precipitate out of solution
- converted from pepsinogen to pepsin by acid hydrogenized which is why stomach is acidic
- acid creates an environment where pepsinogen gets activated to pepsin and can break down proteins
Ilieum
- absorb vitamin b12 and bile salts
- chemical digestion and absorption
- mucosal folds and villi (surface area for absorption)
Teeth of adult horses and cheek teeth of ruminants
- continuously erupting teeth (bony socket of tooth is filling in slowly, pushes tooth up and out)
- tooth is not growing it is being forced out as the socket is filled with bone
- that is why we need to float the teeth in horses
Gall bladder
- optional, not all species have this
- instead have a swelling in the duct
Pancreatic enzymes
1) proteases-> break down proteins
- trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
- zymogens (active at basic pH Bc designed to work in small intestine)
2) pancreatic lipase
- digest triglycerides
- monoglyceride + 2 FFA
3) amylase
- starch breakdown
- RNAse and DNAse (break down RNA and DNA in food that we eat)
Alimentary canal
- gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestines)
Endocrine Pancreas
- affects the whole body
- no ducts
- go out of cell and right into interstitial fluid, go into blood can travel to all of the body
- deal with hormones within the individual
- secretes insulin and glucagon
- insulin= protein hormone from B cells
- glucagon= inc blood glucose, promotes liver breakdown of glycogen
insulin - glucagon =feedback system to regulate blood sugars
Heliobacter
- bacteria that can grow at pH 1 in the stomach
- when they grow they break down the mucus layer and the acid eats away at the stomach lining (ulcer forms)
Pyloric sphincter
Directs chyme from stomach to the small intestine
Millimoles
- 1/1000 of a mole
- how compounds in the body are spoken about
What type of muscle do dogs, cattle and sheep have on their esophagus
- striated muscle can voluntarily regurgitate food easily
- tough stratified squamous epithelium
Middle ear
- filled with air
3 ossicles(small bones) in the middle ear to the oval window
1) malleus
2) incus
3) stapes
Ex: as sound waves enter outer ear and vibrate tympanic membrane causes malleus, incus and stapes to vibrate. They push against the oval window which leads to inner ear filled w fluid. Little waves in the fluid.
On sticky note
Gastrointestinal tract
- stomach and intestines
- a tube starts at the mouth and ends at the anus
Water fluid
- 60-70% of body weight
- extracellular + Intracellular
- variable can change due to dehydration, disease, by species or by fat
Ex:
- if you are fat 70% of your BW is not water, obese animals have less water because it is displaced
Mandible vs maxilla
Mandible is the lower jaw
Maxilla is the upper jaw (not moveable part of cranium)
Alkaline buffer
- in most ruminants saliva is alkaline higher than normal
- involved in evaporative cooling (dogs) ->panting helps to cool the body
Walter Cannon
- homeostasis (maintaining constant internal environment)
- physiology is the process of maintaining homeostasis
Ex: keep bp at a certain level, body temp at a certain level (working together to regulate the body)
Herbivores
- plant eaters
- monogastric and ruminants (most complex)
Ex: horse, sheep, cow, tilapia
Peritoneum
- cross sections through/inside the abdominal cavity they are different spaces
Mesentery = 4 members of membrane
- includes visceral and parietal peritoneum
- holds and supports the intestines (blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic systems)
2 layers of membrane
1) inner visceral peritoneum
2) outer parietal peritoneum
- almost all of organs develop outside these 2 membranes and then migrate in
Rumen
- sacculated with muscular pillars
- has small papillae (they depend on the diet, absorptive)
- anaerobic, microbes use up oxygen
- produce methane and volatile fatty acids
- fluid is alkaline Bc saliva of ruminants is alkaline
- if drops below 5.5 BAD Bc kills off microbes to digest the plant material
- DO NOT give too much grain (grain overload) or soluble sugar (soluble carbohydrates)
Incisors
- for cutting food
Organism
- the individual (human, bacterium, cow, etc)
Cardiovascular system
- heart and blood vessels
Pernicious anemia
- when parietal cells don’t do intrinsic factor well enough
- not protecting the b12 from the acid and does not help it with absorption this occurs
Forestomach
- bulk of the stomach
- rumen and reticulum
Cecum
- blind ended pouches
- for bacterial digestion
Glucose in non ruminants
- most non ruminants use glucose (sugar)
- blood sugar very imp
- blood sugar is stored in the liver as glycogen
- insulin helps store it in the liver
Passive transport
- requires no energy
Two types:
1) diffusion
2) facilitated diffusion
3) solvent drag
4) lipid solubility
5) pores and channels
6) filtration- osmosis
Large intestine
colon-> ascending, transverse, descending
rectum-> terminal segment
- peristalsis moves material up
- no digestive enzymes, lots of microbes
- goblet cells produce mucus to lubricate feces
Omentum
- visceral peritoneal fold
- attached to stomach covers/lies over the small intestine
- reservoir for fat and adipose tissue
- source of energy storage of fat in a healthy animal
- slick surface for intestines to slide across
Receptor
- a binding site for a specific hormone on a cell membrane or inside a target cell
Diet
- what you eat
Tissues
- groupings of cells with a common function
4 Types:
1) muscle tissue
2) nervous tissue
3) epithelial tissue
4) connective tissue
Gastroenterologist
- doctor that treats entire digestive tract
- gastrointestinal tract tube that runs through animal from mouth to anus
Intracellular fluid
- fluid within the cells make up about 50% of total body weight
- water inside the cells
3 types of salivary glands
1) Mucous glands -> produces a thick mucus
2) serous glands-> thin, watery aqueous solution
3) mixed glands-> combo of both
Interstitial fluid
- 15% of Total body weight
- surrounds the cells other than blood cells
- around muscle, nerve, endocrine cells..etc
Swallowing has 2 components
1) active - voluntarily push food to back of mouth
2) passive- the soft palate involuntarily compresses it and pushes it down into the esophagus where it continues down to the stomach
- birds don’t have a soft palate so they elevate their neck and swallow using gravity
Digestive system
- physical and chemical changes of feeds (ingredients) undergo in the GI tract to release nutrients for absorption
Pavlov idea of salivation
- said saliva is produced before you even start to eat
- ran an experiment where he rang a bell to feed the dogs everyday, one day he didn’t put the food out right away and the dogs began to salivate anyway Bc were anticipating the food
- nervous system is responsible for this, anticipates food to get you ready for digestion process.
Enterocytes
- cells lining the intestine
Omasum
- many plies (like leaves of a book, surface area)
- absorbs water
Ex: a young ruminant digestive tract has more in common with a monogastric than its mom Bc milk bypasses the rumen and reticulum, goes to omasum so can break down milk by absorbing the water from it
- reticular esophageal groove in young ruminants allow for the milk to pass, groove closes when consumes roughage and rumen breaks down
- milk goes straight to omasum avoids the rumen and reticulum
Camelids
- has no distinct omasum
- pseudoruminants, only has 3 stomachs
Osmotic pressure
- is the force under which solvent(water) moves from a lower solute concentration to a higher solute concentration through a selectively permeable membrane
- the larger the difference in solute concentrations the faster it moves
Accessory glands
- glands that are off to the side that put things into the digestive tract
Ex: saliva, bile from the liver, pancreatic juice
Diabetes melitus
- hyperglycemia
1) Type 1
- insulin deficiency (pancreas does not produce enough insulin)
2) Type 2
- insulin resistance (produces insulin but doesn’t respond well to it)
Parietal cells
- produce hydrochloric acid in the stomach
- line the wall of the lumen
- produce an intrinsic factor (IF)
- vitamin b12 is very susceptible to being broken down by acid , water soluble contains cobalt (involved in red blood cell production).
- would get destroyed in stomach by the acid, but parietal cells that produce acid binds to vitamin b12 to protect it from the acid in the stomach, helps with absorption in small intestine
Reticulum
- near diaphragm
- hardware stomach, honey comb arrangement on the inside
- where heavy materials, (stone metal etc) can go
Gastric juice
- fluid in the stomach
- includes saliva, water and stomach secretions
- produced by the fundus and body region of simple stomach area
Isotonic
- having the same tonicity (same OsM btw two sides of a membrane)
- no net movement of water
Ex: water is the solvent and we have 300 (OsM) on both sides of the membrane
- water crosses the membrane equally to both sides
Monogastric Stomach
- simple, single
- C shaped, short term storage
- chemical and enzymatic breakdown
- tend to have smaller relative stomachs and eat more frequently than species with ruminant stomachs
Includes
Cardia, Fundus, body, Antrum, plylorus
Type of man or dog teeth
- typical low crowned tooth
- root of the tooth is below the gum line, embedded in bone
- has a cementum(glue) and ligaments that connect the dentin to the bone
- crown is above the gum line
Volatile fatty acids
- ruminant diet
- primary energy source derived from carbohydrates and amino acids
- short chain fatty acids (less than 5 Carbons long)
3 fatty acid chains were concerned with (produced by microbes in the rumen)
1) acetic acid ** primary fatty acid group makes up over half (2C and carboxylic acid end)
2) Propanoic acid (3C and carboxylic acid end)
3) butyric acid (4C and carboxylic acid end)
- animals can produce in liver, fat cells and mammary glands during lactation
2 types of feces
1) regular
2) cecal -> soft and rich in nutrients (rabbits/ birds will eat it)
Chyme
- watery, broken down bolus of food
- goes through the plyloric sphincter to the duodenum which is the first part of the small intestine
Glucagon
- increases blood glucose
- promotes liver breakdown of glycogen
Target cell
- has a receptor that binds to a specific hormone to cause a change in the cells function
Dental pad of ruminants teeth formula
ICPM= 0033
_____ ______
ICPM= 3133
Receptors
- sensors that sense both the internal and external environment
Capsacins
- the hot sensation, not a flavor
- if rubbed on arm, arm would start to burn
- water will solubilize or spread the hot stuff all over your mouth-> spreads the taste
Ex: squirrels eat bird feed so buy special bird feed with Capsacins in it, but birds can’t taste it and squirrels can so it deters them from eating it
Golgi body
- organelle that packages things up by forming a membrane around it
2 major feedback mechanisms
- revolves around set point in your body (ex: ideal body temp!)
- how the body maintains homeostasis
1) negative feedback- most common
- blood pressure and temperature
2) positive feedback
- blood clotting and parturition
Purpose of saliva
- helps lubricate and bind the food together to get a bolus of food in your mouth
Ex: birds use saliva to hold their nests together
How to prove that .9% NaCl is physiologically isotonic (300 OsM)
- prove it is compatible with your cells
0. 9% NaCl= .9g/100 mL= 9g/L
NaCl=58g/mol
.9g/(58g/mol)= .155 mol= 155mMol
- each NaCl ion dissociates into 2 ions= 2 OsM
155 mMol x 2 OsM= 310 mOsM
Small intestine
- between the stomach and the large intestine
- where most of the nutrients are absorbed
- enzymatic break down
Anatomy
- the study of structure
2 types:
- Gross anatomy-> what you can see with your naked eye
- Microscopic anatomy -> need microscope or magnification to see Bc it is at the cellular level, (histology the study of fine/cellular structure)
Solution
- what the red/white blood cells and colloid (proteins) are suspended in
- solute-> small molecules and ions (glucose, sodium, potassium)
Tooth structure
Enamel(outside)-> dentin -> pulp (inside)
Organs
- has a special function in the body and is composed of all the different tissue types
Lumen in esophagus
- the opening in the center of esophagus
- around lumen in the esophagus is a stratified(has layers) squamous(flat) epithelium
- stratified squamous is very tough like ply wood
Heterodonty and 4 categories of teeth
- means we have different types of teeth
1) incisors
2) canine
3) premolars
4) molars
ICPM
Edema
- buildup of interstitial fluid (btw the cells)
Ex: - mosquito bites swelling
- elephantiasis
Endocrine Gland
- secrete into interstitial fluid and blood
- have no ducts
Hypotonic
- has a lower tonicity than the reference solution (300 OsM)
- water will move into the cell with the lower tonicity and it will burst or swell
Lysis-> rupture of the cell
Enzymes
- are catalysts not used up in the reaction, make it go faster
Berthold
Berthold - father of endocrinology
- Capon (castrated male chicken fattened to eat)
- figured out there’s an endocrine system by doing this
Endocytosis (vs exocytosis)
- form of active transport
- to internalize into the cell (engulf)
- exocytosis is the opposite (way to get big materials out of the cell)
Pinocytosis-> cell drinking
Phagocytosis-> cell eating (how white blood cells engulf bacteria)
Cardio esophageal and pyloric Sphincters
- 2 sphincters on ends of stomach
- act like a fist that Keeps food in the stomach inside
1) cardia at the top beginning of stomach
- prevents reflux back into esophagus
2) plylorus at the bottom end of stomach
- prevents premature release from stomach
Lipid Absorption steps
- in the small intestine
1) stabilizing the globules of lipid
- bile acids (coming from the liver or gall bladder) intercalate, or attach, to the lipids
- lipids have a hydrophilic face out and a hydrophobic chain tube
- hydrophobic part is in the lipid
- hydrophilic part is outside
2) break down/hydrolysis of triglyceride
- pancreatic lipase (enzyme that breaks down lipids and is water soluble)
- bonds to hydrophilic face
- cleaves off outer hydrophobic tube and produces 2 free fatty acids and a monoglyceride (1 long chain fatty acid attached)
3) form micelles
- micelles bump into brush border (has many villi aka SA) and FFA and monoglycerides diffuse into eneterocytes
- within the Enterocytes the triglycerides can resynthesize, they were too large before so body had to break it down out and can enter the cell through enterocytes
- within enterocytes combine with cholesterol, lipoproteins and other lipids and form a big mass called a chylomicron
- chylomicron goes to the Golgi body
- Golgi body puts a membrane around it to help it exit the basal side of the enterocyte into the interstitial fluid
- basolatereal cell membrane released by exocytosis
- have a lacteal
4) chylomicron goes to the lymph that leaves the small intestine goes through the lymphatic system
- lymph enters cardiovascular system near the heart
Claude Bernard
- the constancy of the internal environment is the condition for a free and independent life (milieu interieur)
- constant environment inside organisms
Production of acid in monogastric stomach
- gastric pits are finger like productions lines by parietal cells that produce the hydrogen ion in acid
- at the base are chief cells that produce the pepsinogen
- active transport of H+ into lumen into stomach and pumping potassium (K+) out against the gradient into the lumen and into the parietal cells
Hydrophobia
- water hating
RABIES-> foam at the mouth(saliva drips out) and don’t seek out water because paralyzes nerves that supply the soft palate (involved in swallowing) can not swallow
- not an increased production of saliva
Esophagus
- tube that connects the pharynx and stomach
- purpose is to carry food, liquids and saliva from mouth to stomach **
- outer longitudinal, smooth muscle, inner circular smooth muscle
- goes through the neck, the thoracic cavity and diaphragm into the abdominal cavity where the stomach is located
Diaphragm
- a membrane with muscle between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity (very tough)
- very involved in respiration when muscles contract and relax they pull the diaphragm down and thoracic cavity is pulled larger and creates a negative pressure in the abdominal cavity by pulling air into the lungs
How is plant material broken down
- microbes have the enzymes to break down cellulose and cell walls into new microbes(proteins, lipids, fats, sugars), methane and VFA (gases)
- then those are broken down by the ruminant and yield amino acids, lipids, sugars
- Methane and VFA is why rumen is anaerobic and will be absorbed through the rumen (papillae)
Displaced abomasum
- turned or twisted in an abnormal position that prevents or blocks chyme from going to the small intestine
- common in female cows after partition
Floating teeth
- taking a rasp/file to flatten teeth down to avoid them coming out uneven
- if uneven won’t have an even grinding surface
What happens when you change a diet too fast
- BAD
Ex: if you had a diet of hay produces lots of VFA (acetic acid) and then we suddenly switch to grains - microbes that break down hay start dying, not enough microbes that break down grains. So can not get the energy will die
Physiology
- the study of function (how things work)
- the process of maintaining homeostasis
- an organ system approach
How do things work?
How do organ systems work?
Premolars and molars
- cheek teeth Bc back of the mouth along the sides
- grinding teeth, grind the food especially plant material
Cellulose
- monogastric stomach can not digest this
- polysaccharide of B linked D-glucose molecules
- part of cells plant wall (dietary fiber)
- some monogastric herbivores can use hindgut fermentation to break down cellulose (horses rabbits)
Mouth boundaries
- mouth is the oral cavity
- responsible for mechanical breakdown of food
Boundaries
- labia (lips)
- cheeks
Palate (roof of mouth)
- hard palate between mouth and nasal cavity
- soft palate involved with swallowing pushes down substance and squeezes it into the esophagus, most birds do not have this
- cleft palate ridge on hard palate is closed (birds are open, opening btw nasal passage and oral cavity hard palate not complete)
Triglyceride
- neutral fats
- glycerol (3C) + 3 fatty acids
- long chain fatty acids (14-18 C)
Rugae
- inside of the stomach
- folds or ridges that increase the surface area for secretion (not smooth)
Hypertonic
- higher tonicity than the reference (300 OsM) solution
- water will move towards the reference cell
- leaves cell that is higher and will shrink or crenate cells
Ex: if you put salt on one side, water will move towards that side
Peristalsis
- rhythmic muscular contractions that move the food down the esophagus
- longitudinal muscle on outside and circular muscle on inside to move
Carbonic Anhydrase
- in the parietal cells and in red blood cells
- catalyzes a reaction to form hydrogen that is pumped out of the cell and into the lumen
- exchanges potassium
- CO2+H20 -> protein(H+) +bicarbonate (HCO3)
In red blood cells important for an acid base balance
Community
- a bunch of different organisms
- Ecologists study communities of organisms
- super organisms because they have feedback
Digestion and absorption in small intestine
- enzymatic break down
- absorb a lot of the nutrients
Short chain and volatile fatty acids
- under 5 carbons (2-4)
Cat teeth
- obligate carnivores (have to have meat Bc digestive system)
- have no grinding surfaces even on their molars, all sharp
Chylomicron
- resynthesis of triglycerides that combine with cholesterol, lipoproteins and lipids
- large globule of lipid
- can not get into the blood too large
Mucous cells
- these cells produce an alkaline(basic) mucus lining the stomach to protect stomach acid from tearing up epithelial cells
- mucus surface is an epithelium that’s moist
Salivary glands
- ducted, have a gland with lots of cells and tubes and a duct that carries the product into the mouth
- ducted glands are exocrine -> product flows through the duct (saliva, bile)
Plasma fluid
- 5% of total body weight
- intravascular within the blood vessels
- fluid in blood, what red blood cells and white blood cells are suspended in
Coprophagia
- animals that eat their feces
What is a normal Terrestrial animals osmolarity
- about 300 OsM
- physiologically isotonic (reference solution of body) means compatible with cells
Ruminant stomach
- ALL herbivores
- complex stomach
4 Chambers
1) abomasum
2) omasum
3) reticulum
4) Rumen
Rumen Fermentation
- Synthesis of high quality protein by microbes
- synthesis of proteins from non protein (made up of amino acids) nitrogen sources (urea)
- synthesis of B vitamins
- microbes have the enzymes to break down plant material (cellulose and cell walls)
- can be fed a very low quality diet that monogastrics that can not utilize and make proteins, lipids and fats through microbes
(NH2)= amino acids -> proteins (C,H,O,N,S), carbohydrates(sugar), fats (C, O, H)
(CO2-> get rid of from respiration + H2O-> get rid of by sweat or urine)
- takes a lot of water to get rid of nitrogen
Bird respiration
- air travels down the trachea and goes into the air sacs in the abdominal cavity
- there is no diaphragm in the birds
- inspiration breathe in goes through their abdominal muscles that contract and relax they pull the air in through the lung into the air sac and
- expiration - breathe out muscles relax and pressure increases and air pushes out
- bird lungs are flow through lungs must more efficient
Lipid solubility
- some compounds are soluble in lipids but not in water
Ex: water soluble vitamins(B) and fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)
Nutrients
- what the body needs (proteins, amino acids, water**)
Cardio esophageal sphincter
- first part of stomach
- ring of smooth muscle to prevents reflux or back flow of food up into the esophagus
- on both ends
Villi
- fingerlike projections out into the lumen, covered with microvilli
- brush border has lots of SA to absorb nutrients
- each Villi has:
1) blood supply - artery, capillary bed, veing
2) central lacteal - lymphatic system - lacteal is a blind ended lymphatic capillary
How does vomiting affect hydrogen ions
- can lose hydrogen ions and blood becomes more alkaline
Elephantiasis
- case of edema
- worm gets into the body and blocks lymph/clogs blood vessels
- lymph can not get from leg back to the cardiovascular system so it build ups
- limb expands (swelling and thickening of skin)
Exocrine Pancreas
- accessory gland related to digestion
- responsible for breaking down most food substances
- it is a duct that is ducted to the duodenum
- delivers pancreatic juice (alkaline and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid)
- secretes enzymes (proteases-> break down proteins, pancreatic lipase, amylase)
- it is exocrine (ducted glands)
Paracrine System
- affecting the adjacent cells, acts locally
- the chemical messenger cell sends signals to the adjacent cells
Chemical messenger=key
Receptors =lock
Extracellular fluid
- plasma and interstitial fluid together
- fluid outside the cells
- 20% of the total body weight
What part of the reproductive system in which sex would have a stratified squamous epithelium and where would it be?
- when the female is in estrus (when female is receptive to the male)
- the penis is coming into the vagina, so has a tough stratified squamous epithelium to protect it
Diabetes Insipidis
- increase in urine volume, but no sugar
- problem with antidiuretic hormone
Deciduous teeth
- milk teeth or baby teeth
- temporary teeth
Will eventually get permanent teeth
Glycogen
- long chains of glucose molecule that we store until we need sugar
- storage form of sugar
Ingredients
- supply the nutrients that we need
- when they are broken down in the GI tract release nutrients to your body
Negative feedback loop
- if body exceeds ideal set point, body sends signals to the brain to lower things to get back to the ideal set point
Ex: if body exceeds body temperature will send signals to the brain to start evaporative cooling (sweating) to lower your body temperature
3 regions in small intestine
1) duodenum
2) jejunum
3) Ilieum
Autopsy vs necropsy
Autopsy- humans
Necropsy- animals
GDV
- gastric dilation and volvulus syndrome
- occurs in dogs
- gastric torsion or bloat
- animals stomach dilates and then rotates or twists around its short axis
*Large and giant breed dogs are at higher risk, as well as deep cheated breeds like Great Danes, German shepards and standard poodles
Why do rabid animals salivate?
- it is due to their inability to swallow
- this is why they also do not attempt to consume water
Eustachian tubes
Narrow passageway from pharynx to the cavity of the middle ears
- permits the equalization of pressure on each side of ear drum (ear pop on plane)
Enterohepatic circulation
- circulation of bile from the liver
- followed by entry into the small intestine, absorption by the enterocyte and transport back to the liver
Increasing complexity of biological systems
Organelles-> Cell-> tissue-> organ -> organ system -> organism
