Exam 1 Flashcards
(311 cards)
1
Q
what is biological evolution
A
phenotypic change in a population or in a species at a multi generational basis
2
Q
what is geological evolution
A
chemical or physical attributes of the earth changing over time
3
Q
what are the time units in general for evolution
A
generally decades and centuries
4
Q
what are the levels of phenotype
A
biochemical, cellular, morphological, physiological, behavioral characteristics
5
Q
what a biochemical phenotype
A
ex. proteins, blood type
6
Q
why are behavioral characteristics phenotypic
A
can be programmed genetically making it phenotypic
7
Q
what does it mean for something to be heritable
A
parent passing genetic information to offspring
8
Q
what are novel alleles
A
alleles that can manifest within a population
9
Q
whats an example of genetic material undergoing change
A
novel alleles
10
Q
whats an example where having dominant genes is bad
A
huntingtons disease
11
Q
what are the dominance types
A
dominant, codominant, incomplete dominance
12
Q
what are the modes of genetic expression
A
mendelian or non mendelian
13
Q
what are the reproductive modes
A
sexual vs asexual
14
Q
what level does biological evolution work at
A
population and species level
15
Q
what is the defination of evolution at the biological level
A
change in genetic makeup over time
16
Q
changes in allele abundance in a population over time does what
A
causes biological evolution
17
Q
what is biological success
A
ability to survive and produce reproductive offspring
18
Q
what was the evolutionary view in the 18th century
A
species were immutable (biblical creation unable to change)
19
Q
what was overlooked to uphold the idea of immutable species
A
individual variation
20
Q
what physical evidence exists to support evolution
A
fossils
21
Q
what are the two types of evidence to support evolution
A
physical and circumstantial
22
Q
what is circumstantial evidence
A
information that is consistent with the overall process (something that can be assumed)
23
Q
what is physical evidence
A
information that directly indicates changes in living organisms
24
Q
what is the cosmic perspective
A
hypothesis on the way the earth was created (big bang->nebular hypothesis->origin of earth)
25
what did the big bang create and how long ago was it
14bya created universe
26
when and how was the solar system created
4.6bya by the nebular hypothesis
27
how long does it take to form a star
about 1 million years
28
what is the nebular hypothesis
gravitational attraction gas and dust particles
29
how long ago was the earth formed
4.5bya
30
what is the orientation of plants
planets form an acceleration disk associated with a rotating star, matter gravitationally attracts creating larger bodies with higher gravitational fields
31
what did compression of matter do to the earth
cause it to heat up
32
how many eons is earth history broken into
4
33
what is the first eon of earth history
haldean
34
what was haldean atmosphere like
very rich in carbon dioxide, with water vapour, ammonia, and methane
35
what helped decrease atmospheric pressure of earth in haldean eon
venting of gasses into space
36
what was the surface of earth in haldean like
very hot surface(but was cooling), volcanism, massive precipitation
37
how hot was the surface of earth in haldean
230C
38
what are the 4 eons of earth
haldean, archean, proterozoic, phanerozoic
39
what arose from the proterozoic eon of earth
eukaryotic life and diversification of cells
40
when was life first found on earth
late haldean
41
when did vertebrates appear
end of proterozoic, beginning of phanerozoic
42
when did oxygen peak in earth history
carboniferious
43
what are some events that allowed for life to proliferate
more oxygen, change in ocean circulation/chemistry
44
how did continental drift influence life
moving continents changed climate and moved species
45
how did climate change affect life
dry vs wet periods, hot vs cold, rising vs falling sea level
46
how was co2 in the atmosphere removed
by precipitation because it dissolves in water
47
who was one of the first to propose a model for evolution
rene lamark-not darwin
48
whats an example of circumstantial evolution
similaries in limb structure
49
what study did carroll and boyd do
soapberry bug study
50
what was in short the soapberry bug study
soapberry bugs fed on balloon fruit that had a thick skin, balloon vines removed, bug started eating the golden rain tree fruit, fruit was thinner so proboscis got shorter because it was better adapted for that fruit. insects that still have balloon vine have long, those who have golden rain have short
51
what is the soapberry bug an example of
physical evidence towards evolution
52
what are some other examples of physical evidence for evolution
antibiotic resistance in bacteria, rise in pesticide resistance in dipterans
53
what is the role of fossils
gives evidence of past life on earth
54
how can original chemical components be lost in fossilized bone or tissue
mineralization
55
why is it better to have newer fossils
more likely to be able to extract DNA
56
how are fossils and rocks dated?
by layering of rock strata or by radioisotopes
57
what can layers of rock strata tell you
relative age of sedimentation and weather
58
how do radioisotopes work
nuclear decay of isotopes (looking at their half life)
59
what are the 3 eras of the phanerozoic eon
paleozoic, mesozoic, cenozoic
60
how are periods divided within eras
around every 30-80million years
61
which eras have epochs
cenozoic and mesozoic
62
when are we currently living
Eon: phanerozoic
era: cenozoic
period: quaternary
epoch: holocene
63
who first emphasized the idea of extinction
georges cuvier
64
what did william clift do
law of succession (illustrator)
65
what is the law of succession
graded transition
66
what is punctuated equilibrium
rapid change (jumps) in evolution where you may not find intermediates
67
what is an evidence for circumstantial evidence
vestigial organs
68
what are examples of vestigial organs
human coccyx and human arrector pili
69
what is homology
featured in different species have the same developmental source
70
what is the purpose of phylogeny
shows degree of relationness
71
what is an example of homology
different arm components used for different functions (mammal: dolphin, bat, human)
72
what is adaptation
a population or species becomes better able to cope with its environment
73
what is speciation
new species arises from a preexisting species
74
what drives sexual selection
female choice
75
what is natural selection linked with
adaptation and extinction
76
how do you evaluate changes in a population
hardy weinberg equation for population dynamics
77
how can environmental induction cause evolution
phenotype changed after conception can be heritable (ex. tanning)
78
what is amonomorphic gene
one allelic type for a gene
79
what is polymorphic gene
at least 2 allele variances for a gene, the frequency of those alleles can be very different
80
when can a mispair of nucleotides cause heritable changes
if mispairing happens in reproductive cells
81
what is altered when you change nucleotides
the codon message leading to phenotypic changes
82
how can a nucleotide change alter heritable phenotype
if the nucleotides are changed in reproductive cells (somatic cells dont matter for heritability)
83
what kind of substitution happens when a codon is changed
replacement substitution
84
where was a replacement substitution first noted
in sickle cell anemia (val for glu)
85
what are two casual ways for nucleotide changes to occur
replication errors, damaged sites
86
what are some ways for a nucleotide to be damaged
chemical mutagens and radiation
87
what are the types of changes happening when a nucleotide changes a codon
transition or transversion
88
what nucleotides are changed in transition
purine for purine or pyrimidine for pyrimidine (AG or TC)
89
what nucleotides are changed in transversion
purine for pyrimidine (ACT or GCT)
90
what type of nucleotide change is more common
transition is more common than transversion
91
why is transversion less common than transition
transversion is easier to detect in proofreading ebcause it causes a conformational change to the DNA
92
which group has higher point mutation rates
sexually reproducing organisms have higher point mutation rates
93
the number of new alleles per individual should match the ____
mutation rate
94
what is the human mutation rate
1.6 per person (0.8 for sperm + 0.8 for egg)
95
machinery of DNA replication and repair are encoded by what
all are gene encoded proteins
96
what are the impacts of mutation to a species
mutations can be detrimental, but mutations are the source of individual variation
97
why can slight allelic variation help a population
can help population overcome change in environment so they can thrive
98
if you have a high mutation rate, what is your survival rate
low
99
how do new genes evolve
genes take on new functions and are evolved
100
how are new genes formed
gene duplication and unequal crossover
101
how does unequal crossover of genes work
loss of genes for one chromosome and gaining for the other chromosome (chromosomal alteration)
102
what is a chromosomal alteration
change in the morphology of chromosomes
103
what are some consequences of chromosomal alteration
affect gene order and organization, produces duplication and deletions, inversions, polyploidy
104
what is a chromosomal inversion
break occurs in the chromosome and it flips and reanneals (chromosome attachment can get mixed up)
105
what is the nickname for genes that have been inverted
supergenes
106
what is polyploidy
change in number of chromosomes per set
107
what is polyploidy most common in
plants not animals ( thought it can happen in animals)
108
what are some animal examples of polyploidy
salamanders, frogs
109
when is viability in polyploidy low
when polyploid is crossed with normal ploidy
110
what is a consequence of polyploidy
can cause reproductive isolation
111
how can you assess genetic diversity
direct measurement of allelic and genotype frequency
112
what is a direct method for measuring geneti diversity
gel electrophoresis
113
what does genetic diversity allow for
evolution allows a change in allelic frequency over time
114
what percent of loci are polymorphic in a population
33-50%
115
what percent of loci in an individual are heterozygous
4-15%
116
is allelic variance more neutralist or selectrionist
neutralist
117
who had a big impact on Darwin as far as natural selection
Thomas Malthus
118
when was there interest in population dynamics
late 18th century, early 19th
119
what did malthus hypothesize
populations cannot maintain exponential growth indefinitely due to insufficient resources (geometric increase)
120
what are the three ideals made by Malthus
geometric increase, resource limitation, intrinsic regulatory mechanisms on population growth and size
121
the power of population is ___ than the power of earth to produce subsistence for man
greater
122
subsistence increases in what kind of manner
arithmetical
123
populations are held within resource limits by what
death rate an birth rate
124
what scientist came up with the same idea as Darwin on natural selection
Ernst Mayr
125
what did Mayr contribute to the idea of evolution
multigenerational perspecitive, genetic diversity, importance of environmental interactions
126
what is differential survival
survival based on different characteristics
127
what is something darwin underestimated in his evolution theory
the speed at which evolution occurs
128
what is intraspecific
within a population
129
what is interspecific
population interacting with environment or other populations
130
what is a population
group of individduals of the same species that interacts with one another in a given area
131
what are the three important characteristics for a population
number of individuals, density, biomass, age distribution, growth rate, distribution, genetic makeup
132
how do two populations interact with each other
competition, predatory prey interactions, symbiosis
133
what is natality
all reproductive means (asexual vs sexual)
134
what factors cause change in abundance
loss and gain
135
what is exponential growth
continuous population growth in an unlimited environment (assumes a perfect or unlimited environment)
136
what is the equation for exponential growth
dN/dt=rmaxN
137
how do you calculate the size of an exponentially growing population at any point in time
Nt=Noermaxt
138
how do you calculate the standing number in a population at any point in time
Nt=BT+IT-DT-ET
139
how do you calculate the number expected at a future time interval
deltaN=B+I-D-E
140
organisms that reproduce fast have a fast ___
genetic turnover
141
what is heroparous
reproduce multiple times in lifetime
142
what is semelparous
reproduce once then die
143
what can you have discrete population growth
non-overlapping genetations
144
what is the name of the figure for discrete population growth
stair stepping cycle
145
what is logistic population growth
limits in resources cause limits in population size (intraspecific factors)
146
what is the shape of the logistic population growth graph
sigmoid shaped
147
what factor is dealt with in logistic population growth
fudge factor
148
what is the logistic population growth equation
dN/dt=rmaxN((K-N)/K)
149
what is the key point of the logistic population growth equation
allows for changes in r
150
what is k
carrying capacity
151
what are the ideals of robert may
stoichastity between genetations, not everything has same reproducive output, not everything same same lifespan
152
what did PF Verhulst do
limitations on population growth, fixed resources, logistic growth equation
153
what did pearl study
extended verhulsts work in population genetics
154
what does the k value represent
stable number of individuals that can exist in an environment (carrying capacity)
155
birth and death rates are not always directly related with ___
population density
156
when will you have the best r value
moderate density
157
what are the consequences of interspecific interactions
mutualism, partism/predation, interspecific competition
158
what growth model does intraspecific competition follow
logistic growth model
159
when does competition between species occur
when there is a sharing of a resource that limits growth, survival, or reproduction of each species
160
what are examples of resources
food, water, light, space
161
who did competitive exclusion experiments
Gause
162
what was gause's study on
3 species of paramecium, populations stable K when grown alone, when paired some species went extinct
163
why in gause's experiment was p. aurelia more successful than p. caudatum
p. aurelia has more efficient feeding
164
what is the competitive exclusion principle
two species that use a limiting resource in the same way cannot coexist
165
what is resource partitioning
species using a limited resource in a different way
166
what kind of competition is inveigled with resource partitioning
interspecific
167
what are the two niche types
fundamental versus realized
168
what did connell look at
niche factors (distribution, survival, reproduction) of barnacles in scotland
169
what did peter and rosemary grant do
looked at competition in galapagos finches (beak size based on seed size)
170
what elements of competition are shown in the finch study done by Grant
interspecific competition, resource patitioning
171
what is a way to look at predator-prey relations
lotka-volterra models
172
what is the lotka volterra model equation
(dN)/(dt)=(rN)-(aNP)
| N=number prey, P=number predators, r=population growth rate, a=capture efficiency
173
what is aNP
overall rate of prey removal
174
what happens when P=0
prey population grows exponentially
175
what is the equation for exploitation and population cycle
(dP/dt)=baNP-mP
m=mortality rate
b=efficiency with which prey are converted to predator offspring
176
what can prey do to avoid predation
behavioral or biochemical changes
177
what can predators do to gain prey
try to counteract prey advantages
178
what is the predatory arms race
prey and predators fighting to have the better advantage
179
what did Huffaker do
mite study with oranges and rubber balls (population cycles)
180
what contribution did Wallace have on Darwin
he stressed mutability of species
181
what evidence did darwin use for natural selection
artificial selection and natural examples of adaptations among species
182
what are darwins postulates
variable individuals, variation due to parents, survival of it fittest, reproduction of the fittest
183
whats a major example documenting darwins postulates
medium ground finches show phenotypic change over time that had no human intervention. phenotypic change was result of drought causing seeds to change in size
184
what did ernst mayr look at
vertebrate evolution
185
what did thomas huxley do
degree of gradualism, genetic inheritance and expression
186
who does natural selection act upon
individuals in the population
187
what does natural selection act upon
phenotype
188
is natural selection goal oriented (focusing on complexity or intelligence)
no
189
is natural selection predictable
yes
190
how is natural selection predictable
improved populations ability to deal with environment
191
what are the types of selection that have a favoured condition
stabilizing, directional, disruptive
192
what is stabilizing selection
intermediate phenotype has greatest fitness level
193
what is directional selection
change in env where previously less fit phenotype now has highest fitness level
194
what is disruptive selection
two or more phenotypes show equally high fitness levels so that polymorphism is supported in the population
195
what does the hardy weinberg equation predict
stability, models expected changes in a population over time
196
what does the hardy weinberg equation assume
no mutation, random mating, no genetic drift, no natural selection, NO EVOLUTION
197
what is the allele frequency equation
p+q=1
| p+q+r=1
198
what is the genotype frequency equation
p2+2pq+q2=1 for diploid (change powers if other ploidy)
199
what is fitness (w)
contribution of each phenotype to the genetic makeup of the next generation
200
what is the highest fitness number
1.0
201
when would an organism have a fitness of 0
if they have lethal alleles that cause death
202
what is the best selection coefficient you can have (s)
0
203
how do you integrate fitness into hardy weinberg?
by using selection coefficient (sort of the reciprocal of fitness)
204
whats the selection coefficient of a highly fit organism
0
205
why can you not get rid of a recessive allele by natural selection alone
heterozygosity
206
what is the fitness of non-mendelian codominance
Aa=1-hs
AA=1
aa=1-s
207
does phenotypic plasticity exist
allele expression sensitivity to the environment may shape fitness
208
is natural selection equally operative throughout the environment
spatial differences, temporal differences
209
what is the model prediction for a stable population
frequency values for genotypes multipied by average population size to predict number of individuals for each genotype
210
what is the model prediction for a growing population
if s is low and growth is fast then number of individuals with disadvantaged phenotypes may increase
211
what is the model prediction for a declining population
absolute number decline for all phenotypes if r is sufficiently negative
212
what are the two types of selection directed towards heterozygotes
overdominance and underdominance
213
what is overdominance
w=1 s=0 heterozygotes favoured over dominant or recessive individuals
214
what is underdominance
w<1 s>0 heterozygote inferiority
215
what happens to alleles in overdominance
no extinction since heterozygotes favoured
216
what happens to alleles in underdominance
chance events can cause allelic extinction
217
what is frequency dependent selection
selection coefficient changes as a function of genotype frequency
218
what are the types of frequency dependent selection
negative or positive
219
what is negative frequency dependent selection
more rare phenotype in population is favoured
220
what is positive frequency dependent selection
more abundant phenotype is favoured
221
what was the example given in class on frequency dependent selection
elderflower orchid
222
what is the source of new alleles
mutation
223
introduction of new allele copies yield changes in _____
allele frequency
224
assume ___ mutation per 10,000 copies of a normal allele
1
225
what is a back mutation
reverting to an old allele
226
what does migration allow for
movement of alleles to different populations
227
what example was used in class for allele migration
lake erie water snakes
228
what changed between two populations of lake erie water snakes
their colour morphs (melanistic vs not)
229
why is one colour morph in lake erie water snakes favoured over the other
predation, blending into setting, rocky versus sandy shore
230
what are random components of evolution
mutation, environmental changes, migration, random genetic drift
231
what is a process that changes evolution randomly
random genetic drift
232
what are key factors to the random genetic drift
chance events, population size, opportunity for inbreeding
233
what does longterm genetic drift lead to
reduced genetic diversity
234
is the success of alleles over time related to their survival value (fitness)
no
235
what is an example of allelic segregation
meiosis producing ova and sperm
236
what is sampling error
source of change in a population
237
random genetic drift can lead to
reduction in variabiity in a population
238
what makes genetic drift most likely
small population
239
are individuals subject to natural selection in the bottleneck effect
no
240
what is bottle neck effect
major reduction in survival (due to env seq causing large number indv die off)
241
what does bottleneck effect lead to
change in allelic abundances
242
what is the founder effect a reduction of
genetic diversity
243
what is the founder effect
formation of a new geologic population
244
what is jump dispersal
indv displaces from main pop over a long distance (often islands)
245
what is the founder effect driven by
chance dynamics
246
what is founder effect driven by
normal dynamics of dispersal
247
what is vigility
ability to cover long distances
248
what organisms most use jump dispersal
those with vigility (flying animals)
249
what are chance dynamics
outcome isnt fixed with any specific group
250
what are two mitigating factors
chance dynamics and colonization
251
what is colonization
allelic representation isnt representative of main population
252
what are reproductive encounters driven by
proximity and population size
253
whats the formula for any individual in a randomly mating population
F=1/(2N)
254
how can you increase the decline in heterozygosity
by having a smaller population
255
what can disrupt a decline in heterozygosity
migration
256
what was sonya cleggs work on
microsatellite DNA in silvereye birds
257
what is microsatellite DNA
highly repetitive non coding DNA
258
when would you use microsatellite DNA
systematic studies
259
```
TA
TATA
TATATA
TATATATA
TATATATATA
TATATATATATA
```
```
mono nucleotide repeat
di
tri
tetra
penta
minisatellite DNA
```
260
what disease deals with microsatellite DNA
huntingtons disease
261
where was silvereye colonization taking place
australia and new zealand
262
what effect is seen in cleggs silvereye work
founder effect and genetic drift
263
what are the long term outcomes of random genetic drift
alleles drift toward fixation or loss, there is a loss of H, these outcomes assume no NS migration mutation
264
what is another name for sexual selection
assortative mating
265
what is mate choice based on in sexual selection
phenotypic features (visual, olfactory, auditory)
266
who initially recognized sexual selection
charles darwin
267
what is the more common directionality in sexual selection
female choice for males
268
sexual selection has parallel dynamics to what
natural selection
269
what is one critical dynamic in sexual selection
parental investment
270
what is parental investment
both sexes have an investment in their offspring
271
what is the genetic contribution in sexual selection
generally equal between sexes
272
what is the energetic contribution in sexual selection
much greater on the part of the female
| ova, hatching, after care
273
a females reproductive success is tightly tied to what
the fitness of her mate (time and energy cost)
274
what are the 4 match schemes
monogamous, polygyny, polyandry, promiscuity
275
what is monogramy
one mate per individual with common joint care
276
what is polygyny
male mates with many females
277
what is polyandry
female mates with multiple males with male caring for offspring
278
what is promiscuity
multiple mates in one season for both sexes with no care being common
279
where is monogamy most common
birds and some fish and a few mammals
280
what is a group of females that a male may guard
harem
281
what is sexual dimorphism
phenotypic differences between sexes
282
what are the two types of sexual dimorphism
attractiveness and territorial defense
283
what are examples of attractiveness in sexual dimorphism
colouration, adornment, vocalization, courtship behaviors
284
what are examples of territorial defense in sexual dimorphism
size, strength, speed
285
what does the handicap principle counterbalance with
natural selection
286
whats is the handicap principle
excessive energetic cost and diminished defense
287
why does territoriality happen in intrasexual selection
males are territorial over females or a habitat so females can be well nested
288
where is polygyny territoriality popular
in lizards and mammals
| size strength intelligence
289
what are the formats for intrasexual selection
sperm competition, infantcide, territoriality
290
what is sperm competition
multiple closely spaces mating by female or spermatozoan release is affected by presence of another suitor
291
what is infantcide
males killing rival offspring or competitors raiding nests
292
what did we look at for the gray treefrog
mate choice driven by female choice
293
what is kin selection
help to benefit members of pop that youre related to
294
what are the possible outcomes of kin selection
cooperative, altruistic, selfish, spiteful
295
who benefits from cooperativity
actor and recipient
296
who benefits from altruistic
recipient only
297
who benefits from selfish
actor only
298
who benefits from spiteful
none
299
what did hamilton propose
inclusive fitness in support of altruism
300
what is a key driving dynamic to sociality
kin selection
301
what are the three keys to eusociality
overlapping generations, cooperative brood care, nonreproductive castes
302
what groups is eusociality common in
formicidae, apidae, vespidae
303
how is communication done in eusocial animals
pheromones, tactile signals, visual ques
304
what is the r value of full siblings
0.5
305
what is the r value of cousins
0.125
306
what is hamiltons rule for altruistic allele
Br-C>0 (B is benefit to recipient, C is cost to actor)
307
what led to complex ant and bee colonies
kin selection
308
all ___ are eusocial
ants
309
most ____ are eusocial
bees (apidae)
310
what did hamilton propose is key to eusociality
haplodiploidy (XY ZW)
311
whats a mammal that shows eusociality
naked mole rats
