Exam 1 Flashcards
Form (______) is related to function (________).
Anatomy, physiology
Six levels of structural organization of the body
- Chemical 2. Cellular 3. Tissue 4. Organ 5. Organ system 6. Organismal
Define the chemical level of the structural organization of the body.
Defined by reactions among atoms and molecules
Four types of tissues in the human body
- Epithelial (skin) 2. Connective (found between organs, holds them together) 3. Muscular (provide movement of the entire body) 4. Nervous (allows communication between diff. parts of the body)
The 11 major organ systems
- Integumentary 2. Skeletal 3. Muscular 4. Nervous 5. Endocrine 6. Circulatory 7. Lymphatic 8. Respiratory 9. Digestive 10. Excretory 11. Reproductive
6 basic life processes
- Metabolism 2. Responsiveness 3. Movement 4. Growth 5. Differentiation 6. Reproduction
What is characterized as growth?
An increase in body size resulting from an increase in number of cells, an increase in size of existing a cells, and an increase in extracellular material of tissues
2 contexts of reproduction
The production of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement; production of a new individual via fertilization of an egg (oocyte) by a sperm cell
Body fluids
Dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of cell
How is homeostasis maintained?
Via feedback systems or feedback loops
Components of a feedback system
Receptor, control center, effector
Example of a feedback system
- Nerve endings (receptors) in skin detect rise in external (atmospheric) and internal (body) temperature. 2. Brain (control center) receives sensory input from nerve endings and sends motor output to muscles and glands. 3. Sweat glands (effector) increase secretion and blood vessels in skin dilate to lower body temp.
3 subatomic particles of an atom
Protons, neutrons, and electrons
Three numbers that are used to describe atoms
Atomic number, mass number, atomic mass
Number of protons =?
Number of electrons
What does the molecular formula indicate?
The elements involved and number of atoms of each element
Atom is the smallest unit of an ________, a molecule is the smallest unit of a __________.
Element, compound
What does a structural formulas indicate?
The elements involved, number of atoms involved, and arrangement of atoms in relation tone another
How many electrons does the 1st shell hold?
2 e-
How many electrons does the 2nd shell hold?
8 e-
How many electrons does the 3rd shell hold?
18 e-
Why do atoms lose, gain or share electrons in particular ways?
In order to form stable valence electron shells
What element is an exception to the octet rule?
Hydrogen
What are the 2 elements that only have one electron shell?
Hydrogen and helium, stable with 2 electrons
Forms of energy
Kinetic, potential and chemical energy
Amount of activation energy is dependent upon?
Concentration of reactants and temperature
4 important properties of water
- As a solvent 2. Lubricant 3. Thermal properties (high heat capacity) 4. Water in metabolic reactions
How does water work as a lubricant?
A layer of water can reduce friction between two opposing surfaces
What is the effect of water having a high heat capactity?
Absorbs a lot of heat with only a small change in its own temperature; Decreases effect of temperature changes on the body
How are salts formed?
Acids and bases react with one another to form salts
What range of pH is considered acidic?
pH < 7
What range of pH is considered basic?
pH > 7
What pH is considered neutral?
pH = 7
Major categories of organic compounds
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Role of carbon in organic molecules
Form covalent bonds with one another to form long chains (straight or branched) or rings
Example of monosaccharides
Glucose and fructose
Example of a disaccharide
Sucrose (table sugar)
Lipids include?
- Fatty acids 2. Triglycerides (fats and oils) 3. Phospholipids 4. Steroids 5. Eicosanoids 6. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
Where are triglycerides stored?
In adipose (fat) tissue as an energy reserve
What bond joins an amino acid?
Peptide bond
What determines the function of a protein?
Its structure, ex: the structure of an enzyme allows it to bind to a substrate
What is the structure of a DNA)?
Two stranded coil around one another (double helix); each strand composed of sequences of nucleotides and pair of nitrogenous bases located between two strands
What is the structure of RNA?
Single stranded (in humans), pentose sugar is ribose (not deoxyribose) and uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
3 types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA)
Study of the structure of the body and describes different parts of the body
Anatomy
How is ADP (adenosine triphosphate) produced?
By removing a phosphate group from ATP; this releases energy
How is ATP produced?
By adding a phosphate group back to ADP; this uses energy
Study of the functions of the body; understanding how the part of the body works
Physiology
Basic structural and functional unit of living organisms
Cell
Groups of cells and associated materials that work together to perform a particular function
Tissues
Consist of 2 or more tissue types, have recognizable shapes, and perform specific functions
Organs
Consist of related organs that work together to perform a common function; 11 major organ system
Organ system
Discrete individual
Organism
The sum of all chemical reactions that occurring the body; includes catabolism and anabolism
Metabolism
Releases energy; breaking down complex molecules into more simple molecules
Catabolism
Requires energy; synthesizing complex molecules from more simple molecules
Anabolism
Ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment (internal or external)
Responsiveness
Motions of the entire body, individual organs, single cells or cellular structures
Movement
The development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state
Differentiation
Unspecialized cells
Stem cells
Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s external environment; maintenance of various body conditions within relatively narrow acceptable ranges despite changes in the internal and external environment; includes regulation of volume and composition of body fluids
Homeostasis
Fluid within cells (also called cytosol)
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Fluid outside of cells; fluid within tissues and within body cavities (blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, etc.)
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Extracellular fluid within tissues
Interstitial fluid
Monitor changes in a controlled condition, e.g. Sensory structures associated with nervous system
Receptor
Sets range of acceptable values for the controlled condition, evaluates input from receptor, sends output to effector, e.g. Central nervous system
Control center
Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition, e.g. Muscles and glands
Effector
Response reverses a change in the controlled condition; homeostasis is almost always maintained by,negative feedback system
Negative feedback system
The response reinforces a change in the controlled condition; requires an outside event to interrupt it; used to reinforce conditions that do not happen frequently, e.g. childbirth
Positive feedback system
Basic building blocks of all matter; cannot be split into simpler substances and composed of one type of atom
Chemical elements
Smallest unit of element that retains the properties and characteristics of the element
Atoms
+ charge, large, nucleus
Protons
Neutral charge, large, in the nucleus
Neutrons
- charge, small, orbiting around nucleus
Electrons
Equal to number of protons in an atom; elements are defined by the number of protons in its atom
Atomic number
Number of protons + number of neutrons in an atom
Mass number
Also called atomic weight; the avg. mass of all of its naturally occurring isotopes
Atomic mass
measure of mass of atoms (also called atomic mass unit = amu)
Daltons
Atoms of a given element may have different numbers of neutrons; the most common isotope has the same number of neutrons as protons
Isotopes
An atom that has gone or lost one or more electrons; electrically charged and includes cations and anions
Ion
An atom that has gained one or more electrons; NEGATIVELY CHARGED
Anions
Substance composed of two or more types of atoms (two or more elements); symbolized by molecular formulas
Compounds
Specific regions where electrons orbit the nucleus
Electron shells
Outermost shell
Valence shell
Te forces that hold atoms of a molecule together; forms when atoms lose, gain or share electrons
Chemical bonds
Valence shells are stable when they hold 8 electrons, unstable if they hold more or less than 8 electrons
Octet rule
Formed when one atoms loses one or more electrons to another atom
Ionic bonds
Formed when two atoms share one, two or three pairs of electrons in latest for both stone to have stable valence shells (octet rule)
Covalent bonds
Formed when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts an atom with a partial negative charge; depends on attraction between polar molecules; weaker than ionic or covalent
Hydrogen bonds
When two atoms share electrons equally
Nonpolar covalent bonds
One (electronegative) atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other atom; unequally sharing of electrons
Polar covalent bonds
Has a partial positive charge in one region and a partial negative charge in another region
Polar molecule
Interactions between atoms; involve forming or breaking chemical reacts between atoms
Chemical reactions
Matter convert from one form to another during a chemical reaction. Matter is to created or destroyed. (balancing equations)
Law of conservation of mass
Movement of an object or change in the physical structure of matter
Work
Capacity to do work
Energy
Kinetic, potential and chemical energy
Forms of energy
Energy matter in motion
Kinetic energy
Stored energy derived from an object’s position or from its physical or chemical state
Potential energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds; a form of potential energy
Chemical energy
Energy is converted from one form to another during a chemical reaction; energy is not created or destroyed
Law of conservation of energy
Input of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
Activation energy
Chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy; they are not changed or consumed by the chemical reaction so they can catalyze many reactions
Catalysts
Specialized proteins that serve as catalysts in living organisms, including humans
Enzymes
Release more energy than they absorb; generally associated with catabolism (breaking chemical bonds)
Exergonic reactions
Absorb more energy than they release; generally associated with anabolism (forming chemical bonds)
Endergonic reactions
Usually lack carbon; may have ionic or covalent bonds and are usually structurally simple, ex. H2O
Inorganic compounds
Always contain carbon and usually contain hydrogen; always have covalent bonds and often structurally complex
Organic compounds
the medium in which other substances are dissolved
Solvent
The dissolved substances
Solute
Ions and polar molecules; form an aqueous solution and dissolves in water
Hydrophilic substances
Nonpolar molecules, will not dissolve in water
Hydrophobic substances
the ability of a substance to absorb and retain heat
Heat capacity
Often produce water as a by production of the formation of complex molecules (dehydration synthesis)
Anabolic reactions
Often break down complex molecules by the addition of water (hydrolysis)
Catabolic reactions
Dissociates into a hydrogen ion (H+) and one or more anions; proton donor
Inorganic acids/acids
Dissociates into a hydroxide ion (OH-) and one or more cations; proton acceptor
Inorganic bases/bases
Dissociates into a cation (not H+) and an anion (not OH-)
Inorganic salts/salts
Measures the relative concentration of H+ and ranges from 0-14
pH
Formed by the combination of small organic molecules; often take the form of polymers
Macromolecules
Consist of many repeat, identical subunits called monomers
Polymers
Include sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose; contain C,H, and O; mainly used by human body as a source of chemical energy
Carbohydrates
Monomers of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Two monosaccharides that formed a chemical bond with each other
Disaccharide
Made of many monosaccharides and consist of 10’s to 100’s of monomers
Polysaccharides
Synthesized by animals (including human); store in the liver and skeletal muscles of humans as an energy reserve
Glycogen
Produced by plants; used for energy storage by plants and are digestible to humans
Starches
Produced by plants and used to build cell walls by plants; indigestible to humans
Cellulose
Contain C, H, and O; typically insoluble in water (hydrophilic) and are polymers composed of fatty acids
Lipids
The most simple lipid; Consist of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
Fatty acids
Composed of a glycerol and 3 fatty acids; at room temperature, it can be solid (fat) or liquid (oils)
Triglycerides
Composed of 1 glycerol molecule, 2 fatty acids (nonpolar), 1 phosphate group (PO43-) (polar); makes up the cell membrane; Amphiphatic
Phospholipids
Composed of polar (hydrophilic) and nonpolar (hydrophobic) parts
Amphiphatic molecules
Polymers composed of amino acids; Contain C, H, O and N (sometimes S); more complex than carbs or lipids; have structural and functional orioles and include enzymes (biological catalysts)
Proteins
Makes up a protein; includes an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) group, and a side chain (different in each amino acid)
Amino acids
-Covalent bond between the carbon atom of the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid - and the nitrogen atom of the amino (-NH2) group of the other amino acid
Peptide bond
Joins many amino acids in a long chain
Polypeptide
The sequence of amino acid monomers
Primary protein structure
The twisting or folding of the polypeptide chain
Secondary protein structure
The 3D shape of the protein
Tertiary structure
The structural relationship between polypeptide chains
Quaternary protein structure
Process in which proteins lose their 3D shape when exposed to extremes of pH or temperature; it interrupts the proper functioning of the protein
Denaturation
Polymers composed of nucleotide monomers; contains C, H, O, N, and P; include DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids
Double stranded and found in the cell’s nucleus; the inherited genetic material inside cells
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Single stranded; found in nucleus or in cytoplasm of cell; relays info between DNA and cellular machinery of protein synthesis
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Consist of a pentode sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate (PO43-) group, and one of 4 nitrogenous bases
Nucleotides of DNA
Large, double ringed; adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Purines
Small, single ringed; thymine (T) and cytosine (C)
Pyrimidines
A-T, G-C
Base pairs
Energy “currency” of cells (storage of energy), derived from adenine
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
